A true follower of the Buddha should have few desires. He should be content with what he has and he should try to lessen his defilements. He should have little desire for material possessions or attendants. He should not want to speak of his accomplishments in the study of scriptures or in the practice of meditation. He should keep the depth of his learning or his spiritual attainments to himself. A true Ariya (the Noble One) does not reveal his spiritual insight although he wants to share it with other people. It is only the religious impostor who calls himself an Ariya or an Arahat. Contentment is also essential to spiritual development. ‘One should be satisfied with whatever one has, whether good or bad. Equally essential is the effort to lessen one’s defilements (kilesa). The self-training leading to this goal forms the subject of Sallekha sutta. The sutta is beneficial to meditators and non-meditators alike; it is helpful to all those who wish to overcome immoral desires and cultivate good, wholesome desires. On one occasion while the Buddha was residing at the Jetavana monastery at Sævatthi, Mahæ Cunda, the Arahat who was the younger brother of Særiputta entered a transcendental state of mind called phalasamæpatti. The Arahat usually spent his time in one of these states when he had nothing else to do such as discussion or preaching of the Dhamma. Sometimes, he might abide in jhænasamæpatti or nirodhasamæpatti where all the mental activities are suspended. Or, he might dwell in Arahattsamæpatti that keeps him absorbed in the peace of Nibbæna. After passing away the whole day in this state of mind, the thera Cunda approached the Buddha in the evening and after paying due respects, he asked the following question. “O Buddha, there are many false views in regard to the theory of ego (atta)” or the theory of the world (loka). O Buddha, does a monk dispel these false views or completely renounce them just as he begins to reflect on them?” THE QUESTION NEEDS EXPLANATION Before the rise of Buddhism, a being was called atta or loka (world). There are three lokas, viz., sattaloka (the world of beings), sa³khæraloka (the phenomenal world) and okæsaloka (the physical world). Atta and loka mean essentially the same thing, viz., a living being. Some people regard the physical body as atta or ego or soul. For example, when they bend, stretches or move their hands or feet they believe that it is they themselves who perform these movements. On this view, atta is identified with the physical body. According to some people, atta is not the human body but atta includes the body its relation to the latter is like the relation of a tree to its shadow. The movement of any part of the body is done not by atta but the body that belongs to it. The movement occurs in accordance with the desire of atta. This view identifies atta with the mind. Then, there is the view that the physical body depends on atta just like the scent of a flower depending on the flower. This view, too, makes mind identical with atta. Some people believe that atta is inherent in the body. They say that atta pervades the whole body, its size being dependent on the size of the body. Some say that atta lies quietly in the cavity of the heart like the flame of a fire burning in a calm atmosphere. These beliefs about atta loom large in ancient Indian literature and similar beliefs about the soul are to be found in other countries. The belief in atta does not prevail in a Buddhist country like Myanmar because Buddhism rejects it. Yet some people still believe in the existence of atta or spirit (Myanmar: leikpya) in the body. Some women speak of the spirit being scared or seized by the devil. Many people describe atta as a living entity that enters or leaves the body. There are found kinds of ego-belief that center on the physical body. The first belief regards the body as the ego while the other three beliefs identify it with the mind. Or, the latter three beliefs may have nothing to do with mind or body because today those who believe in the ego insist that the ego is neither the body nor the mind. Despite all their negations, their belief centers on the mind and the body. Similarly, there are four kinds of ego–belief in connection with feeling; (1) the belief that identifies the ego with feeling. “It is I (ego) who feels pain. It is I (ego) who feels happy or unhappy”, (2) the belief that the ego is not identical with feeling but that it has the latter as its property, (3) the belief that makes the feeling dependent on the ego and (4) the belief that makes the ego dependent of feeling. Likewise, we have four kinds of ego-belief in regard to perception (saññæ), another four ego-beliefs in regard to formations (sa³khæra) and still another four ego beliefs bearing on consciousness (viññæ¼a) In short, there are four kinds of ego-belief corresponding to each of the five khandhæs and so, we have altogether twenty kinds of belief about the ago. These ego-beliefs are called attadi¥¥hi or sakkæyadi¥¥hi. Ordinary people or worldlings are usually not free from the ego-belief. The only difference is that some are dominated by it while some do not hold fast to it. We can get or it completely only when we attain the first stage of holiness (Sotæpattimagga). Here, loka is another term for atta. There were eight different theories about loka current in India in the time of the Buddha. (1) The first theory is that loka or atta indestructible, that it exists forever. This is the eternity-view (sassatadi¥¥hi). Its adherents hold that although the physical body is destroyed at death, its essence or atta does not share its fate. The atta passes on to another body and continues to exist there. It is never subject to destruction. This view is somewhat like the belief of some Myanmar people who have no knowledge of Buddhism. For them, conception marks the arrival of a living being in the mother’s womb while death means the departure of the ego-entity for a new abode. Those who are firmly attached to this belief do not practise meditation and so they cannot hope for spiritual progress. The belief is, indeed, a major impediment on the way to Nibbæna. It is not, however, a deep-seated belief among Myanmar Buddhists. They accept the teaching that life is devoid of a permanent atta, that it is only a succession of cause and effect or of psycho-physical states. They believe that the psycho-physical process comes to an end with the extinction of its cause, viz., the defilements consequent on the attainment of four stages of knowledge through meditation. The eternity-belief of the Myanmar people, therefore, does not pose a serious threat to spiritual progress. Yet, even though it is not deep-rooted, one cannot remove it completely until one becomes a Sotæpanna. (2) Opposed to the eternity-belief is nihilism (ucchedadi¥¥hi). According to this belief, the ego-entity only exists until the dissolution of the body after which it is annihilated. In the time of the Buddha, there were only a few people who held this belief, but today the belief is gaining ground because non-Buddhists have put forward specious arguments for it. They reject the idea of a future life on the ground that it does not admit of empirical investigation. Nihilism has become popular probably because of their persuasive art of writing and the strong human desire to enjoy life fully here and now. In reality, there is no immortal soul or annihilation after death (or) there is neither immortality nor complete annihilation. Buddhism denies the ego-entity and recognizes only the psycho-physical process conditioned by the law of cause and effect. There is only the continuity of cause and effect such as ignorance causing kamma-formations (sa³khæra), the sa³khæra in turn causing consciousness for a new life and so forth. Death is not a mystery for it means the final dissolution of the psycho-physical organism that is subject to the process of ceaseless disintegration. Death is not, however, annihilation. Because of defilements and conditioned by kamma, physical and mental events take place in unbroken succession before in a new place and a new life. Rebirth is neither the transmigration of the soul nor the transfer of consciousness and corporeality from one life to another. The physical and mental phenomena arise continually and always pass away. It is not the eye-consciousness that sees nor the ear-consciousness that hears. Each consciousness arises at the appropriate moment and passes away immediately. There is, however, a causal connection between any two consecutive units of consciousness. Likewise, death destroys completely all corporeality and consciousness but there arise new psycho-physical phenomena of existence in a new life and these are causally related to those in the previous life. The rebirth-consciousness and other psycho-physical factors contributing to the new life arise as a result of the attachment to any sign or vision (nimitta) relating to his kamma or future life at the moment of one’s death. Thus, there are only physical and mental phenomena in terms of cause and effect. Since there is no ego-entity, it is a mistake to believe in an immortal soul that survives death and it is equally wrong to speak of annihilation. The psycho-physical process will continue so long as it is not free from defilements. It will come to an end completely only in the case of an accomplished Arahat who passes away, after having been liberated from all attachments. The decease of the Arahat or his parinibbæna is not annihilation. It means only the complete cessation of suffering inherent in the psycho-physical process. This process should be studied through Buddhist scriptures and through the practice of meditation. (3) According to the third theory, atta or loka is eternal and also non-eternal. This theory assumes the eternity of the creator of the universe but denies this attribute to his creatures. It is labelled ekaccasassatavæda in Brahmajæla sutta. Although the theory says that most creatures are impermanent, it does not accept annihilation at death. It holds that atta transmigrates to another abode after the dissolution of the physical body. Hence, it belongs to the group of eternity-beliefs. (4) The fourth theory says that loka or atta is neither eternal nor non-eternal. It is hard to understand this view. It is a speculation that makes no sense. Since it says nothing definitely about the atta, it is also called amaravikkhepavæda, amara being the name of a species of fish that is hard to grasp. (5) The fifth theory says that atta or loka is finite. In other words, a living being is a world of its own. The atta which pervades the body of a being is limited in size to that of the respective body. Thus, the atta of a human being is supposed to be at most a fathom in height and from two and a half feet to three feet in girth. Some say that atta lies in the cavity of the heart and that its size depends on that of its habitat. It is also said that atta is as small as an electron (paramænumrþ) when it is in search of a new abode. (6) The next theory is that atta or loka is infinitely great. It rejects the idea of an individual soul in each living being and holds that every being is a part of the great Soul (paramatta) of God who created the Universe. The paramatta is infinitely great and pervades the whole universe and so atta too is infinitely great. These theories which insist on the infinity or otherwise of atta are to be found in modern Indian religious books. Buddhist commentaries attribute them to illusion about the size of the counter-image (pa¥ibhæganimitta) that arises during the practice of concentration (kasi¼a) and passes for atta or loka. But the illusion occurs only to a few individuals at a higher stage of jhæna or mental absorption. The beliefs that I have mentioned are those of common people. (7) Some believe that atta or loka is finite as well as infinite. This is somewhat like the ekaccasassatavæda (theory 3). It apparently means that some, that is, the attas of those created by God are finite while the paramatta of God is infinite. (8) Again some say that atta or loka is neither finite nor infinite. This too is a nonsensical speculation (like theory 4), and amaravikkhepavæda that gives no definite answer. All these theories are absurd because they revolve about atta which does not exist. They make confusion worse confounded just like the speculations about the non-existent horn of the hare or the hair of the tortoise. Yet these theories appealed to those who were not the followers of the Buddha. So, the thera Mahæ Cunda asked the Buddha whether a monk can completely overcome these beliefs just at the beginning his meditation. In other words, the question of thera Cunda was whether the attainment of concentration (samædhi) or joy (pøti) or the seeing of light at the early stage of meditation meant the elimination of false views about loka or atta. There was ground for raising such a question. Some people believed that concentration (samædhi) or mental absorption (jhæna) or joy (pøti) or other varieties of experience that are termed upakkilesa (defilements of insight) would suffice to ensure the conquest of false beliefs and the attainment of Arahatship. Cunda’s questions was designed to enlighten such deluded and conceited people. The practice of meditation has an air of holiness and any experience that is somewhat unusual is likely to be mistaken for an extraordinary insight. In the absence of a good guide or a proper teacher, the yogø tends to overestimate himself and have illusions about his spiritual attainments on the basis of his trivial and slightly unusual experience. This is not peculiar to the present age. Even in the time of the Buddha, among those who practised meditation under the expert guidance of the Blessed One and the great Arahats like Særiputta who gave instructions in both theory and practice, there were some yogøs who harboured delusions because of their unusual experiences. It is safe to assume that nowadays the number of such yogøs may be very great. In reality, the attainment of spiritual goal means discrimination between corporeality and consciousness, realization of their constant arising and passing away and clear understanding of the impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness or suffering (dukkha) and insubstantiality or non-self (anatta) of existence. Above all, the yogø must have illumination as regards the nature of phenomenal existence, viz., its state of flux and dissolution; illumination resulting from disenchantment, weariness and equanimity. It is only when he has these illuminations or insight knowledge (ñæ¼a) that the yogø can see Nibbæna. It is only when he thus sees Nibbæna at least on the first path of holiness (Sotæpattimagga) that he can get rid of the false views about atta or loka. The Buddha’s reply to the question of Cunda is as follows:– “Cunda, it is true that in this world there are many false views about atta or loka. These views stem from five groups of mind-body complex (khandhas), they lie dormant in the five khandhas, they constantly focus on the five khandhas. But if a man knows, “This set of five khandhas is not mine, it is not my atta,” if he thus sees things as they really are with his insight-knowledge, he will completely rid himself of the false views.” It is hard to understand both the question and the answer. Cunda asked whether it was possible to overcome the wrong views just as one begins to reflect on them. But what is the beginning of reflection? The Buddha’s answer is that contemplation of the insubstantiality of the five khandhas means the elimination of the wrong views. But how is one to contemplate it? In order to be free from wrong views about atta or loka, we should know their mainspring as well as the misconceptions about it that give rise to these views. So, according to the Buddha’s teaching, these wrong beliefs will dominate us if we naively regard the five khandhas as our belonging or as our atta and we will overcome them when we contemplate the impersonality of the khandhas. The five khandhas are to be found in the body of every living being. They are (1) corporeality (rþpa), (2) feeling (vedanæ), (3) perception (saññæ), (4) mental formations (sa³khæra), and (5) consciousness (viññæ¼a). The first group refers to the whole physical body that is made up of billions of infinitesimal particles of physical matter. The second group is the group of feelings, pleasant or unpleasant, that depend on our contact with the external world. Perception is the mental phenomenon that helps us to remember the sense-objects; sa³khæras are mental formations that give rise to bodily, verbal or mental behaviour. This group includes sensorial contact (phassa), reflection (manasikæra), volition (cetanæ), greed (lobha), ill-will or anger (dosa) and other mental factors numbering fifty. As for the last group viz., consciousness, there are many kinds of it as determined by the corresponding sense-organs such as eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, etc. Thus we have physical and mental groups (næma-rþpa) the physical being the corporeality and the mental comprising the four groups of psychic activities. The five khandhas become active when there is contact between the senses and their respective objects. When any object is seen, the eye together with the whole body plus the visual object constitute the corporeality (rþpa), the pleasant or unpleasant feeling at the sight is vedanæ, cognition of the object is saññæ, paying attention to the object or making any effort to see it represents the sa³khæra and the awareness of the object seen in viññæ¼a. Whenever we see, only these five khandhas occur and there is no atta besides them. Yet, people usually identify each of the five khandhas involved in the event of seeing with their atta or ego-entity. When a man sees himself, he regards the visual object as his ego-entity and when he sees some living being, he considers it the ego-entity of somebody. Thus the ego-belief is rooted in the human tendency to identify the five khandhas with ego-entity at the moment of seeing. Likewise, the five khandhas come into play when we hear or smell or taste or touch or think. Again, we have the ego-illusion that stems from the human tendency to regard the khandhas as the ego-entity. Most of the ordinary people are under the influence of the ego-belief that has its origin in consciousness since they usually make their ego identical with their mental activities and stages such as emotions, e.g. happiness or unhappiness, feelings, memory, perception, intention, effort, and so forth. In his reply to Cunda, the Buddha said that the erroneous views about ego “arise, lie dormant and occur constantly”. They arise because of misconceptions about the khandhas at the moment of seeing, etc. They arise not once or twice but repeatedly. They lie dormant in the sense that although they may not arise at the moment of seeing, etc., because of wise reflection (yonisomanasikæra) etc., they are ready to do so under certain circumstances. The five khandhas which become manifest when we see, etc., leave a clear impression on us and reflections on such impressions may give rise to greed, ill-will, ignorance, conceit and so forth. There may also prevail a false view which identifies our experience with the ego (“It was I who saw”, etc). Thus, the potential for the ego-belief lies in the clear memory of sense-objects. AVERTING DEFILEMENT POTENTIAL THROUGH CONTEMPLATION In order to counter the latent defilements, we should contemplate the arising and passing away of khandhas, their impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and insubstantiality (anicca, dukkha and anatta). We should try to see them as they really are. We should note, “seeing, seeing” at the moment of seeing and in the same way we must be mindful of other sensations that result from hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking. The objects of introspection in regard to the sense of touch are manifold. For this sensation is involved at the moment of walking, sitting, lying, bending, etc. The feelings of warmth, painfulness, itchiness or tiredness, too, stem from the sense of touch. There are also numerous objects or contemplation at the moment of consciousness of mental events (“intending”, “knowing”, “thinking”, etc). Pleasure, joy, sorrow, anger, craving and other emotions may also be the objects of introspection. But the beginner in meditation cannot introspect every physical or mental event; nor can he develop the power of concentration by so doing. So, he should begin with a few physical activities such as sitting or touching. Or, he can practise in-and-out breathing and watch the nostril-tip, noting the inhalation and exhalation. But the best method that we recommend is that of watching the abdominal motion, i.e. the rising and falling of the abdomen. But the yogø’s mindfulness is not confined to abdominal motion. While watching the abdominal rising and falling, you should also note pains, aches, bending, stretching, etc. In short, you should watch all mental and physical events. Begin with the abdominal motion but as you get used to mindfulness, you should extend it to all other psycho-physical phenomena. As you gain practice in mindfulness, you will become aware of only the phenomena such as seeing and hearing without any sign of permanence, pleasant or unpleasant character or ego-entity. Initially, you will see the corporeality as the known object and the mind as the knowing subject but with the development of concentration, you will find only cause and effect. Further strengthening of the power of concentration will then lead you to realize the perpetual arising and passing away of phenomena at every moment. Then you will come to know the impermanence of the five khandhas and this knowledge is an antidote to conceit just as awareness of imminent death is bound to counter inordinate pride. So, whenever the yogø realizes that everything is transitory, he knows, “This is not I.” Moreover, he is fully aware of the unsatisfactoriness of everything that arises and invariably passes away. He does not regard any sense-object as his belonging, an object of attachment or as something on which he can depend. So, whenever he is aware of the impermanence and unsatisfactoriness of things, he reflects, “This is not mine.” Again, since everything which the yogø watches conflicts with his desire and passes away in accordance with their nature, he comes to realize the futility and impersonality of the khandha. This realization of anatta (non-existence of ego) is of paramount importance. Whenever the yogø contemplates the three marks of the khandhas and knows, “This is not mine. This I am not,” he will have no ego-illusion about them. He will not regard himself as the subject who sees or hears and so, through meditation he will for the time being free himself from the belief in ego-entity. But this temporary elimination of the ego-illusion does not mean its complete eradication. The illusion will arise whenever the yogø fails to contemplate the khandhas. Insight-knowledge of the three marks of khandhas together with their arising and passing away will in due course lead to bha³gañæ¼a which makes the yogø see only the dissolution of all phenomena. Then, he will find the sense-object as well as the consciousness that he notes continually vanishing. He understands clearly that everything is impermanent, unsatisfactory, insubstantial and unworthy of attachment. Later on there arises “bhayañæ¼a” i.e., knowledge of the terrifying character of the khandhas. This gives rise to knowledge of their defects (ædønavañæ¼a) which in turn leads of wearing or disgust (nibbidæ-ñæ¼a). Then the yogø wants to renounce the five khandhas (muccitukamyatæñæ¼a) and he exerts more effort to contemplate (pa¥isa³khæñæ¼a). This results in detachment from the khandhas (sa³khærupekkhæñæ¼a), with the maturity of this knowledge there emerges the Sotæpattimaggañæ¼a when the yogø sees the peace of Nibbæna wherein all the physical and mental phenomena become totally extinct. At this stage, insight into the three signs of existence suffices to eliminate the ego-belief. According to Sallekha sutta, the knowledge (“This is not mine” “This I am not” “This is not my atta”) is sufficient to overcome the ego-illusion. Once one has seen the Nibbæna, it is not possible for anyone to have illusion about the khandhas. The illusion is completely eliminated and hence, the Buddha’s reply to Cunda that we have already quoted. HOW TO CONTEMPLATE FOR THE ELIMINATION OF THE BELIEF It is easy to know through book-learning, hearing a sermon or memorization that the khandhas do not belong to the ego, that as such, they are unworthy of attachment. But neither this hearsay knowledge nor the intellectual acceptance of the fact in itself helps us to remove defilements. It is only the intuitive, empirical knowledge that will ensure their riddance. So, through constant introspection the yogø notes that everything that arises passes away immediately and he gains an insight into the impermanence of all phenomena, their frightful aspect and unsatisfactoriness. He knows well that there is nothing internally or externally that belongs to the ego and so he becomes free from attachment. Moreover, this insight helps him to overcome ego-centric pride. Pride is due to ignorance of the transitory nature of existence. Ordinary people do not observe the arising and passing away of psycho-physical phenomena and they believe that the physical body and consciousness last a lifetime, that the man who now sees and hears is the same individual who saw and heard before. This illusion of permanence and identity is the main-spring of pride and uppishness. But, for the yogø who is aware of the ceaseless dissolution of mind-body complex, there is no cause for conceit. Since every physical or mental phenomenon arises and vanishes instantly, there is no reason to believe in a living ego-entity. The object known as well as the knowing consciousness is always subject to dissolution and the only reality is the ceaseless flux of psycho-physical elements that are passing away. When the yogø develops his insight-knowledge everything that arises disappears as soon as he notes it. If the mind wanders while observing the rising and falling of the abdomen, the yogø instantly notes it and it (the wandering mind) disappears. If he has a sensation of heat in a certain part of the body, he directs his attention to it and it is gone the next moment together with the consciousness that focuses on it. Certainly, the perpetual dissolution of the psycho-physical phenomena cannot represent a living ego-entity, a man or a woman with a permanent self. Recognition of this fact is the real insight-knowledge of the impersonality of existence. Some yogøs say that they see the ceaseless arising and passing away of the objects of introspection but that they are not well aware of what is happening to the introspecting mind. In that case, they are not yet free from ego-belief in regard to the subjective role of consciousness. But those who constantly observe every physical or mental phenomenon that stems from the six senses in accordance with the teaching of Satipa¥¥hæna sutta find all sense-objects as well as the observing consciousness constantly passing away and so they become fully aware of the impermanence of everything. Then after passing through the successive stages of insight-knowledge, the yogø attains the first path of holiness and sees Nibbæna, the cessation of all psycho-physical phenomena. Only then will he be free from all misconceptions about atta or loka. This is what the Buddha taught when he replied to Cunda. In short, it is the insight-knowledge of the continuous flux of all psycho-physical phenomena together with the three marks of existence that brings home to the yogø the futility of attachment, conceit and ego-belief and makes him see Nibbæna on the first path of holiness. It is only then that he is wholly free from false beliefs. The development of concentration or the mere knowledge of the arising and passing away of everything or the emergence of insight-knowledge in itself does not mean the elimination of the beliefs. On the contrary, the yogø who is wedded to such beliefs tends to overestimate himself as a result of his attainment of jhæna. This is pointed out in the further dialogues of the Buddha. “Cunda, I will tell you about the cause of misconception and conceit in connection with the practice of meditation. Among my disciples, there are some monks who have attained the first jhæna that is characterized by joy (pøti) and freedom from sensuous desire, hindrances and discursive thinking.” Jhæna is the concentration of attention on one single object such as earth, water, in-and-out-breathing, an organ of the body or a corpse. This state of consciousness involving concentration and tranquility is the samatha jhæna. The other jhæna is the vipassanæ jhæna which has, as its object the contemplation and insight-knowledge of the three marks of existence, namely, anicca, dukkha and anatta. In the first jhæna the yogø is free from sensuous desires that always dominate ordinary people and even embarrass the meditators who have not yet developed concentration. The first jhæna also ensures freedom from the other four hindrances viz., ill-will, torpor and laziness, restlessness and worry and doubt. This freedom is enjoyed not only while the yogø is absorbed in jhæna but also just before and just after his attainment of this state of consciousness. Freedom from hindrances is followed by joy (pøti) and happiness (sukha). The yogø has an indescribable feeling of ecstasy pervading his whole body. He is completely free from stiffness, tiredness and other physical discomforts. Thus, besides his freedom from hindrances the yogø has five attributes indicating his absorption in the first jhæna, viz., ecstatic rapture, intense joy, very active thought conception (vitakka), discursive thinking (vicæra) and one-pointedness of mind ekaggatæ or samædhi. The body of the yogø who is absorbed in the first jhæna is motionless, tough and composed. This state of jhænic consciousness may last two or three hours; or it may last the whole day or the whole night. There is no collapsing or swaying of the body. It is a mistake to regard, as some people do, lying or rolling on the floor as a sign of spiritual attainment. These attainments designated by such terms as jhæna, magga or phala are appanajavana which we may translate as attainment-impulsion for the commentaries define it as maintenance and strengthening of bodily postures such as sitting and standing. Because of the freedom from hindrances and the five varieties of experience that characterize the first jhæna, the yogø tends to be elated and conceited. But in his reply to Cunda, the Buddha says unequivocally that the attainment of the first jhæna does not mean the lessening of defilements. There are grounds for delusion on the part of the yogø who is absorbed in the first jhæna. He hopes to have some unusual experience and so if he does have such experience, he tends to be deluded into a false sense of attainment. Some have delusions because they are misguided by incompetent teachers. In the case of some yogøs, relative freedom from hindrances and joy and other experience are satisfying enough to give cause for self-complacency. In fact, however, this jhæna experience is a far cry from the higher insight-knowledge of anicca, dukkha and anatta. It is by no means to be confused with the practice of sallekha that helps to lessen defilements. For the first jhæna can only keep off the defilements, whereas, through the sallekha practice the yogø can eventually remove them, root and branch. Yet, the attainment of this jhæna tends to give the yogø the impression of being a Sotæpanna or an Arahat. There were bhikkhus subject to such illusions in the time of the Buddha and after his parinibbæna. Once five hundred monks meditated in the forest according to the instructions of the Buddha. When they became absorbed in jhæna, they found themselves with-out any defilement and so being convinced of their spiritual attainment, they came to report to the Buddha. At the monastery gate they met Ænandæ who-informed them of the Buddha’s instruction that they should see the Teacher only after visiting the cemetery. So, the monks went to the cemetery. It appeared that in those days corpses were left unburied at the cemetery. The corpses to be burnt were apparently in a fresh condition at the time of the monks’ visit. At the sight of the decomposed corpses, the monks were filled with disgust. Yet, they could not help lusting for the bodies of women who had died recently. Only then did they realize that they were not yet wholly free from defilements. Then the Buddha emitted diving rays from his abode and preached a sermon. On hearing the sermon, all the monks became Arahats. About three of four hundred years after the parinibbæna of the Buddha, there lived in southern Sri Lanka an Arahat called Dhammadinnæ. At that time there was an elderly monk named Mahænæga who regarded himself as an Arahat. One day, Dhammadinna went to the elderly monk and asked many questions to which the latter answered easily. Dhammadinnæ complimented the monk on his deep wisdom and inquired of him when he first became an Arahat. He said he had been an Arahat for more than sixty years. Did he possess psychic powers? Yes, he did. At the request of his interlocutor, the monk created a big elephant. Would he now will that the elephant trumpet and rush towards him? He willed accordingly but as the animal came rushing, he became frightened and was about to run away when Dhammadinnæ seized the fringe of his robe and said, “Sir, would an Arahat have any fear?” Only then did Mahænæga know that he was a mere worldling. He meditated in accordance with the instructions of Dhammadinnæ and became a real Arahat. The story of another ill-informed yogø monk is told in the commentary on Sallekha sutta. He was called Cþ¹asuma and he dwelt at a forest retreat that turned out many Arahats in those days. Cþ¹asuma, too, considered himself an Arahat. At the request of Dhammadinnæ, he created a lake and a big louts flower with a girl dancing and singing sweetly on it. Dhammadinnæ told the monk to watch the dancing girl for a moment and went into a room. Then while the monk was watching the girl of his own making, the sensual desire that had been lying dormant for sixteen years began to rear its ugly head. Being disillusioned, the monk meditated according to Dhammadinnæ’s instructions and attained real Arahatship. These stories point to the misconceptions current in ancient India when the Buddhist religion was flourishing. The yogø monks of those days were spiritually advanced and endowed with psychic powers. Their misconception was due to unusual power of concentration. Nowadays, some yogøs have illusions without making any spiritual progress. When the yogø who correctly practises gains an insight into the arising and passing away of all mental phenomena, he is overwhelmed with a variety of unusual experiences such as seeing the light, rapture, tranquility, joy, faith and so forth. In the Visuddhimagga, the yogø is assured of these experiences. If the practice of meditation does not bring about these experiences, the question arises as to whether the method is correct or whether the yogø is lacking in effort. On the other hand, the yogø who has such experiences may overestimate his attainments. The first jhæna is not the practice of sallekhandhamma that helps to root out the defilements. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha terms it di¥¥hadhamma-sukhavihæra, that is, living in bliss here and now. While the yogø is absorbed in jhæna, his consciousness is fixed on a single object. With his mind free from all unwholesome distractions, he is calm and peaceful. This state may last continuously for two or three hours. The Buddha pointed out, too, how illusion and self-complacency may arise from the second jhæna with its three characteristics, viz., rapture, joy and one-pointedness of mind, or from the third jhæna with its joy and one-pointedness of mind or from the fourth jhæna with its equanimity and one-pointedness of mind. Of course, the second, the third and the fourth jhænas are more sublime than the preceding states of consciousness but they ensure only bliss in the present life and are by no means to be equated with sallekha practice that is designed to eliminate defilements. Nor is sallekha practice synonymous with the jhæna of ækæsænañcæyatana (sphere of unbounded space), jhæna of viññæ¼añcæyatana (sphere of unbounded consciousness), jhæna of ækiñcaññæyatana (sphere of nothingness) and jhæna of nevasaññæ-næsaññæyatana (sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception). These jhænas do not help to overcome defilements. They cause only peaceful bliss and as such are termed santavihæra. Insight-meditation (vipassanæ) and jhæna have some characteristics in common. When the practice of mindfulness is well established at the exploratory stage (sammæsanañæ¼a) there are conception of object (vitakka), repeated reflection (vicæra), joy (pøti), happiness (sukha), and concentration of attention (samædhi). Thus, whenever the yogø observes any phenomenon, his insight-meditation is somewhat like the first jhæna with its five characteristics. When the yogø gains insight-knowledge of the arising and passing away of all phenomena, he is barely aware of an arising object without thought perception or reflection. He has intense joy, rapture and tranquility. So his meditation is somewhat like the second jhæna with its three attributes. The disappearance of the light, etc., (upakkilesa: defilements of the mind) marks an advance in the insight-knowledge of the arising and passing away of phenomena. Then there is no joy but happiness is very intense. The mind is tranquil and free from distractions. The yogø shares the joy and the one-pointedness of mind that are characteristics of the third jhæna. The higher levels of insight-knowledge such as “bha³gañæ¼a” wherein the yogø sees only the passing away usually have nothing to do with joy. They are characterized by equanimity and one-pointedness of mind. The former is especially pronounced in the sa³khærupekkhañæ¼a. At this stage the insight-meditation is akin to the fourth jhæna with its two attributes of equanimity and one-pointedness of mind. Furthermore, at times the yogø’s whole-body disappears, giving him the impression of being in space. At that moment he is like a person absorbed in ækæsænañcæyatana jhæna. At other times, attention is fixed exclusively on consciousness and then the yogø’s state of consciousness resembles viññæ¼añcæyatana jhæna. On occasions, it seems as though he were watching nothingness, a state somewhat like ækiñcaññæyatana jhæna. Sometimes the consciousness may be so transcendental that it becomes non-existent, a state on par with that of nevasaññæ-næsaññæyatana jhæna. These characteristics which the insight-meditation has in common with jhæna often leads to self-complacency which is an obstacle to spiritual progress. So in meditation it is necessary to note these unusual experiences and reject them. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha, after pointing out the misleading character or the jhæna, proceeds to spell out the sallekha practice that is calculated to stamp out the defilements. The sutta mentions forty-four kinds of unwholesome acts, speech and thoughts which we must avoid in order to overcome defilements. These are as follows: (1) Causing harm to a living being–vihimsæ. (2) Killing–pæ¼ætipæta. (3) Stealing–adinnæ-dæna. (4) Unchastity–abrahmacariya. (5) Lying–musævæda. (6) Slandering–pisu¼avæcæ. (7) Abusive or harsh language–pharusavæcæ. (8) frivolous talk–samphapalæpa. (9) covetousness–abhijjhæ. (10) ill-will – vyæpæda. (11) Wrong views–micchædi¥¥hi. (12) Wrong intention–micchæsa³kappa. (13) Wrong speech–micchævæcæ. (14) Wrong action–micchækammanta. (15) Wrong livelihood–micchæ-jøva. (16) Wrong effort–micchævæyæma. (17) Wrong mindfulness–micchæsati. (18) Wrong concentration–micchæsamædhi. (19) Wrong reflection–micchæñæ¼a. (20) false sense of freedom–micchævimutti. (21) torpor and lethargy–thønamiddha. (22) Restlessness–uddhacca. (23) Doubt–vici-kicchæ. (24) Anger–kodha. (25) Enmity–upanæha. (26) Ingratitude–makkha. (27) Vying with people of upper crust–palæsa. (28) Envy–issæ. (29) Miserliness–macchariya. (30) Hypocrisy and boastfulness–sæ¥heyya. (31) Concealment of one’s fault and deception–mæyæ. (32) Lack of respect for those who are worthy of respect–thambha. (33) Excessive conceit –attimæna. (34) Intractability–dubbacata dovacassat. (35) Bad friendship–pæpamitta. (36) Forgetting to do good things–pamæda. (37) Lack of faith–asaddhata. (38) Having no shame in doing evil–ahørika. (39) Having no fear of the consequences of the evil deeds–anottappa. (40) Intellectual poverty–appasutata. (41) Laziness-kosajja. (42) Unmindfulness–mutthasacca. (43) Lack of insight-knowledge–duppaññatæ. (44) Bigotry–sandi¥¥hiparæmæsa. ELABORATION OF SALLEKHA PRACTICE jhæna in itself does not ensure the total extinction of these defilements. Their total extinction calls for completed self-training in respect of morality, concentration and wisdom (søla, samædhi and paññæ) that run counter to them. To this end, the yogø must attain at least the first stage of the holy path. At this stage, wrong views, bigotry, skepticism, the wish to kill, in short, all the defilements that can land a man in the lower worlds are rooted out. This extinction is of paramount importance. Concentration, jhæna psychic powers and special illumination count for little without the extinction of defilements. For the non-Buddhist yogø, the attainment of jhæna and its preservation till death mean rebirth and longevity in the world of Brahmæs. But in due course of time, he will return to the deva or human worlds and then his bent for sensual pleasures and evil deeds may again land him on the lower planes of existence. Moreover, the Buddhist yogø who is complacent because of his jhæna attainment does not fare any better than the jhæna non-Buddhist yogø in that he is still in danger of descent into the nether world. But should he practise meditation on the basis of jhæna, he can free himself from such a danger. So, the Buddha told disciples not to remain self-assured over jhæna but to practise the Sallekha dhamma that would ensure the total eradication of unwholesome propensities. The first precept that the Buddha enjoined on his disciples is that of inoffensiveness or non-violence (ahimsæ). We should avoid hurting any living being if only because we do not wish to be hurt and the doctrine of ahimsæ is acceptable to all living beings. India has a high regard for this doctrine of ahimsæ. It tops the list of five major rules of conduct binding on the Jains. But the Jains goes to extreme in their interpretation of ahimsæ. From their point of view, cold water, green grass or plant and earth are animate and so we should not hurt them. The Vinaya rules forbidding the destruction of plant and grass and digging of earth were designed to avoid controversy and ill-will. In reality, grass, plants and earth are not living beings and a non-bhikkhu who cuts the plants or digs the earth is by no means doing any evil. But the Buddha-dhamma insists that we should not hurt any living being, whether big or small, that is sensitive to pain and pleasure. Inoffensiveness is more enabling then jhæna and in order to understand this, we should remember that there are three levels of this defilement or offensiveness. First, we have the kind of offensiveness labelled vøtikkamakilesæ which means hurting a living being physically or by word of mouth. The antidote against this kind of defilement is morality. A man who pays regard to his moral character will not hurt other people. He may have ill-will but because of his moral sense he does not give vent to it physically or verbally. The aggressive thoughts which we harbour are called pariyu¥¥hæna kilesæ. We have to overcome this kind of defilement though upacæra–samædhi and appanæsamædhi jhænas, i.e., initial stage of concentration and attainment concentration associated with jhæna. Concentration on an object or in-and-out breathing, too, helps to counteract unwholesome thoughts. This is overcoming defilements by repression (vikkhambhanapahæna) which the commentaries liken to the pushing aside of moss in a pond by a pot thrown into it. The yogø may be free from ill-will in his post-jhænic state of consciousness for many years, but just like the surface of water that is again covered with moss, the mind of the yogø will be defiled when there is cause for defilement as in the case of the two Sinhalese monks with supernormal powers. Lying dormant in a person who does not contemplate the psycho-physical phenomena that arise from the six senses or who has not yet reached the Anægæmi stage are aggressive desires that become manifest under favourable circumstances. The Pæ¹i term for this is anusayakilesæ. A physical of mental event that escapes our notice leaving us unaffected may make us ill-tempered when it is recalled. Such latent defilements have to be eliminated through insight-knowledge. The yogø who constantly watches all psycho-physical phenomena will take no offence in the face of an offensive sense-object. To him everything is momentary, subject to anicca, dukkha and anatta. So neither his sense contact nor any recollection of it makes him angry. This is the way to overcome aggressiveness through meditation (tada³ga pahæna). Every object which a person fails to watch is a potential source of ill-will. But meditation is the basic sallekha practice that enables one to stamp out its cause. Once a man attains the first stage of holiness, he is free from the gross forms of ill-will that may consign him to the nether worlds. At the second, i.e., the Sakadægæmi stage, the ill-will becomes still weaker while at the Anægæmi stage it becomes completely extinct. The sallekha practice requires the yogø to avoid aggressiveness till the attainment of the Anægæmi stage. Hence, its superiority over jhæna. The yogøs at our meditation center are dedicated to the sallekha way of life. Sallekha practice is part and parcel of their morality. They constantly watch all the feelings and sensations that from contact with the external world and every moment of their awareness means suppression of aggressiveness, and in due course, they eradicate it completely. This accords with the Buddha’s teaching in the Sallekha sutta. “Other people may do harm to a living being. But we will not harm any living thing. Thus, you should practise the Sallekha dhamma that will lessen the defilements.” This teaching also applies to the other 33 defilements. It concerns the practical phase of the Sallekha dhamma. The Buddha preached too, its reflective phase. “Cunda, I say that even the mere thought of wholesome dhammas is very beneficial to you.” The mere thought about dæna (alms-giving), søla (morality), and bhævanæ (mind development) is highly beneficial. The mere intention to observe the moral precepts, to hear a sermon or to practise meditation is conducive to earthly or heavenly bliss. On his death bed, Ma¥¥haku¼dalø, a rich man’s son saw the Buddha and he was so much full of wholesome thoughts that he became a deva in Tævatimsæ, one of the celestial abodes. A frog, too, was once carried away by the Buddha’s sermon and on its death became a denizen of the deva world. Just after the Buddha’s sarinibbæna, a woman of Ræjagaha city was intent on offering some flowers to a thþpa (pagoda) but on the way she was gored to death by a bull. Then, she found herself with a golden chariot among’ the retinue of Sakka, the king. In view of this meritorious character of wholesome thoughts, it is hardly necessary to dwell on the benefits that result from carrying them into effect. Prosperity in the human or deva world is rooted in such wholesome thoughts. These thoughts result in doing deeds which in turn lead to happiness on earth and in the deva world. The effort to become a Buddha or an Arahat also originates with wholesome thoughts. The yogøs meditating here (at this center) are motivated by such thoughts and in due course they will have the illumination that they seek. So, even the conception of a wholesome idea, thought or desire is very important. The Buddha says: “Cunda, the mere thought of ahimsæ (inoffensiveness) is beneficial. You should cultivate the thought, ‘Other people may hurt a living being, but I will not hurt any being.” Another method of approach is the Sallekha way of life is that of avoidance. Here in the sutta, the Buddha cites the examples of a good road and a good harbour. Suppose there are two roads, one good and the other bad, or who harbours, one good and the other bad. One can avoid the bad road and the bad harbour by going along the good road and by using the good harbour. Similarly, if one follows the path of non violence, it means one avoids the path of aggressiveness. Although the sutta refers to aggressive persons (vihimsækassa) the Buddha’s teaching applies to unaggressive persons as well. For, although a man does not now commit aggression either physically or by word of mouth, he might have committed it in his previous existences and he may commit it in future by force of circumstances. No one is wholly free from the defilement of aggressiveness until one attains Anægæmi stage or arahatship. So, we should practise the Sallekha dhamma and strive to attain the higher stages of Ariyas that will help to wipe out the defilements. Another aspect of the practice of non-violence (ahimsæ) is its tendency to elevate the devotee to the higher worlds. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha says that all bad deeds tend to land the doer in the lower worlds, whereas all good deeds ensure rebirth in the higher worlds. All bad deeds have their roots in greed (lobha), ill-will (dosa) and ignorance (moha). Major misdeeds such as killing and stealing may lead to rebirth in the nether worlds. Minor misdeeds motivated by intention or ill-will do not cause much suffering to the wrongdoer but they tend to prolong the misery in the cycle of life. Those who have committed gross misdeeds, such as killing have to suffer not only in the lower worlds but also in the human world where they may be reborn by virtue of their good kamma. Retribution follows for many lifetimes in the form of a short span of life, physical afflictions, poverty and so forth. Ill-health is often the kammic result of aggression which was committed in a previous existence. An evil deed will at best lead to rebirth as a poor, wretched deva in the heavenly abode and at worst it means damnation in Avøci, the lowest hell. In the time of Kakusanda Buddha, one Mæra, called Dusi, instantly landed in Avøci hell because of his evil design against the Buddha and the Arahats. On the other hand, good deeds such as dæna and søla tend to lead the doer up the successive levels of existence in the worlds of human beings devas and Brahmæs. They make accessible, too, the paths of holiness such as Sotæpanna, etc. Good deeds help to turn the doer into a rich man or a king as the case of a flower-girl who offered the Buddha some food and before long became the queen of king Kosala. When a bottle of oil is broken in water, the heavy pieces of glass sink, while the light oil rises up. Likewise, bad deeds tend to drag down a person whereas good deeds contribute to his uplift. A man who does good deeds will enjoy longevity, good health, beauty and so on. He will become a deva or a Brahmæ in a future life. He can also attain the paths of holiness. The person who has thus made spiritual or material progress on the basis of his good deeds is well secure. So you should seek higher status, spiritual or otherwise, through the practice of non-aggression. We now come to the last aspect of sallekha practice, viz., that of extinguishing the fires of defilements. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha says that there is no reason why a man who is wholly sunk in a quagmire will be able to save another man in a similar predicament. But it is reasonable to assume that a man who is not sunk in the quagmire can save another man who is not bogged down in the mud. Likewise, only the man who has disciplined himself, trained himself in the threefold division of the Eightfold Noble path and extinguished the fires of defilements will be able to help another man in regard to discipline, training and extinction of defilements. According to the commentaries, the quagmire in the sutta refers to sensual pleasures and a person who loves pleasure is likened to a man sunk in a quagmire. The implication is that a man who is mired in pleasure cannot save another man from a similar entanglement. This should be especially borne in mind by those who give instructions in meditation without having practised it as well as by those who are being guided by such teachers. The commentaries say that there are people who have become enlightened after hearing the speeches of the worldlings and that such enlightenment through proper reflection on proper speeches means deliverance by the Buddha. But such cases are exceptional. Here, the substance of the Buddha’s teaching is that one who is not free from the dangers of samsæra (life-cycle) and the lower worlds cannot free others from such dangers, that one who has not overcome defilements cannot help others to do so. Just as a fire cannot be used for putting out another fire, so also a defilement cannot neutralize another defilement. Violence cannot extinguish violence. It can be ended only by non-violence. Let us then vow that we will avoid violence; that we will cultivate thoughts of non-violence; that we will keep off violence with non-violence; that we will raise our status through non-violence and that we will put out the fire of defilement of violence with non-violence. These are the five væras (aspects of sallekha practice) which the Buddha explains in the sutta. KAMMIC EFFECTS OF VIOLENCE AND NON-VIOLENCE The kammic effects of violence and non-violence are spelled out in the Culakammavibha³ga sutta of Majjhima-nikæya. Subha, a young man asked the Buddha why some people live long, why some live only a few years, why some are healthy and some unhealthy, why some are good-looking and some ugly and so forth. The Buddha says: “All living beings have their own deeds (kamma) as their own possessions; they inherit their kamma; kamma is the main cause of their present condition. They have kamma as their main support. It is kamma which determines their lot in life.” In response to the request of Subha, the Buddha enlarged on the kammic results of violence and non-violence. The gist of the Buddha’s teaching is that those who treat others cruelly go to hell after death. On release from hell, they suffer from many diseases wherever they are reborn. On the other hand, deva world is the post-mortem destiny of the kind-hearted people who practise non-violence; and when they again become human beings, they are free from disease and are healthy. THE STORY OF THERA PUTIGATTATISSA The kammic consequence of cruelty and violence is evident in the story of bhikkhu Tissa who lived in Sævatthø city in the lifetime of the Buddha. While training himself in the spheres of morality, concentration and wisdom, the bhikkhu became ill. There appeared on his body boils that became bigger and bigger until they burst and turned into ugly ulcers. His bones decayed and gave way. His body was rotting and even his relatives and disciples ceased to look after him. This is no wonder because people usually have little patience even with their parents if they happen to be victims of chronic, incurable diseases. Seeing Tissa in this sad plight and his potential for Arahatship, the Buddha visited him. The monks nearby could no longer remain indifferent. The Buddha had the sick monk’s garment removed, washed and dried. He was bathed in warm water and redressed. Then, as the monk lay on the bed, relieved and composed, the Buddha stood at the head of the bed and uttered a verse which may be translated in prose as follows: “Tissa, before long you will be devoid of consciousness and cast off at the cemetery by your fellow-monks. Your body will lie there like a useless log.” By this verse, the Buddha reminded Tissa of the need to practise the dhamma since he had nothing else on which he could rely in his last moment. Once he became lifeless, nobody would care for his corpse. It would become rotten and loathsome in a couple of days. It would be aba¼doned at the cemetery just as people take away only good timber for making chairs, bedstead, etc., and leave the odds and ends in the forest. As he had had some training, Tissa became an Arahat on hearing the verse; and before long he passed away. The Buddha had the corpse burnt and the bones enshrined in a cetiya (pagoda). The bones left over after the cremation of a deceased Arahat are what we call his relics. Myanmar Buddhists usually believe that the relics of the Arahats are spherical objects like those of the Buddha. This is not true. Only the Buddha’s relics are somewhat like tiny balls as a result of his will. When we went to Calcutta to receive and convey the relics of the two chief disciples to Myanmar, we found them just like ordinary bones. There is no doubt that the relics of other Arahats, too, are nothing more than human bones. The popular belief that the relics of a revered saint turn up in the shape of balls after cremation is, therefore, to be taken with a grain of salt. The monks asked the Buddha about the destiny of their late co-religionist. The Buddha said that he had attained Nibbæna. They asked the Buddha why Tissa had suffered so much despite his potentiality for sainthood. According to the Buddha, Tissa was a fowler in the time of Kassapa Buddha. He killed and sold birds. As for the birds which remained unsold at the end of the day, he broke their wings and legs. Perhaps, what with nothing like cold storage in those days, there was no other way to keep the birds fresh and alive. For thus mutilating and killing the birds, he suffered for a long time in hell, and when he was reborn in the human world, he had many diseases and in his last existence his bad kamma was worked out to its bitter end. His attainment for Arahatship was in part due to his offer of food to an Arahat together with a prayer for sainthood during his life as a fowler. Those who are kind and avoid violence will be free from disease and ill-health in a future life like thera Bakula. When I was in Mawlamyaing, I met a woman whose health was simply amazing. She was in her early sixties and yet she had never taken any medicine and never had an ailment like headache or cold. The part of Mawlamyaing in which I resided was malaria-infested and I had an attack every two or three months but the woman was immune although she had lived there the whole year. Her health was most probably due to the practice of non-violence and kindliness in her previous existence. So in order to enjoy good health and freedom from disease you should lead a life of non-violence and kindliness. The abstinence from taking life is one of the five precepts and so it is familiar to Buddhists. But it needs elaboration. The Pæ¹i term for taking life is pæ¼ætipæta. Pæ¼a means a living being or life; ati means “very quickly” and pæta means to make something fall. So pæ¼ætipæta literally means to cut off a life prematurely. As in the case of non-violence, the Buddha’s discourse on abstinence from killing deals with is five aspects. Those who do not practise the Sallekha way of life leading to the elimination of defilements will not hesitate to take life. Yet such people are really afraid of death. The Buddha stresses the fact that every living being fears danger and death. This does not apply to the Arahats; and the Ariyas at the anægæmi stage but these saints are few and far between. All over the world the law of the jungle reigns supreme. Big animals kill and eat small animals for their self-preservation. This is true of both land and sea animals. As the Buddha says, in the animal world, cannibalism at the expense of the weak is the order of the day. But animals are not worse than man in this respect. For man consumes many kinds of animals including the birds in the air and even the big whales in the distant seas. To take life and preserve one’s body at the sacrifice of other living beings is indeed downright injustice. Yet, people who kill for their own survival are much afraid of death. They are more afraid of being killed by others, or of being eaten by animals such as lions, tigers or big serpents. Once a group of Americans tried to catch dragons on an Indonesian island. These dragons are bigger than man. The Americans shot them dead or set traps to catch them alive. On one occasion a dragon came rushing to attack a woman among the hunters. The woman was much scared and she had a narrow escape only because her companion shot the dragon just in time. This shows how people fear death although they kill living beings cruelly. So, in accordance with the Buddha’s teaching, we should avoid taking life, or in other words, adopt the sallekha practice that helps to lessen the defilement of killing. This is Sallekhaværa. As in the case of non-violence, we should bear in mind the other four aspects of non-killing. We should cultivate thoughts about it (cittuppædaværa), and follow the path of non-killing in order to avoid the path of killing (parikkamanaværa). Then, there is the uplifting aspect of non-killing (uparibhægaværa). Killing is an evil deed that leads to the nether worlds or to rebirth among the lower, wretched classes of human beings. Some people achieve success and wealth at the expense of other people’s lives but their achievement is short-lived. They are bound to suffer in the cycle of life. On the other hand, non-killing leads to security and happiness on the higher planes of samsæric existence. Those who avoid killing will not revert to lower worlds. Let us then make ourselves spiritually progressive through abstinence from killing. Finally, we have the aspect of non-killing that contributes to the extinction of defilements (parinibbænaværa). Abstinence from killing is moral practice and so, why is it described as superior to jhæna? According to the commentaries, the jhænas were in vogue prior to the rise of Buddhism and as such, they do not lead to higher spiritual attainments and Nibbæna. On the other hand, non-violence and non-killing received impetus from Buddhism as part of the way to full liberation. Hence, the Buddhist emphasis on Sallekha practice. In the Pæ¹i text which mentions the popular belief in the highly spiritual value of jhænas, reference is made to “some monks in this sæsanæ” i.e., Buddhist religion. This, of course, means the Buddhist bhikkhus, and it might be argued that the Buddhist yogø too, is devoid of Sallekha practice if he becomes much self-assured and smug because of jhænas. In my opinion, self-complacency resulting from jhænic attainment is incompatible with real spiritual progress. It does not square with Sallekha practice that leads to the total destruction (samuccheda pahæna) of defilement. I have already cited the cases of mahænæga and Cþ¹asumana, the two devotees of jhæna who were denied transcendental knowledge because of their self-assurance for sixty years. But for the instructions of Dhammadinnæ all their efforts and aspirations would have been futile like those of the ascetics Alæra and Udaka. So, from the Buddhist point of view, jhænic attainment per si is not to be confused with Sallekha practice. In Buddhist Sallekha training, one has to overcome evil through morality, concentration and wisdom or insight-knowledge (søla, samædhi and paññæ). We have to depend on søla for the elimination of physical and verbal defilements such as killing, stealing, lying, abusing, and so forth. As for evil thoughts we should keep them off through concentration. We can develop the power of concentration by means of kasi¼a exercises or by fixing the mind on in-and-out breathing or by being absorbed in jhæna. Concentration on breathing may last five or ten minutes, jhænic absorption may go on for a couple of hours and all unwholesome thoughts are ruled out in these states of consciousness. But the conquest of defilements through concentration is temporary. Repeated concentration on the repulsiveness of the internal organs of the human body will fill the yogø with aversion to a very good-looking man or woman but once he suspends his contemplation, he becomes attached to his sense-object. In other words, concentration provides only a temporary and not a permanent antidote against defilements. THE PERMANENT REMEDY : INSIGHT-KNOWLEDGE It is only insight-knowledge (vipassanæ)that enables us to overcome the defilements once and forever. As the yogø watches the sense-objects such as the sight sound, etc., attentively, he finds them as well as the consciousness passing away constantly. There is nothing permanent to be found. No impression of visual objects or sound is left on his mind. He is not defiled by greed or ill-will in connection with his seeing or hearing. Nor does the recollection of any event lead to defilement since the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the sense-object is not apparent at the moment of seeing or hearing and the insight into the impermanence of every object and the cognizing consciousness leaves no room for unwholesome propensities. Watchfulness is essential, for the yogø cannot overcome the defilements stemming from sense-objects that escape his attention. Constant watchfulness and the subsequent perfection of insight-knowledge lead to contact with Nibbæna on the path of the Ariyas. Such an illumination roots out the respective defilements. At the Sotæpatti stage, the ego-belief and doubt become extinct; the yogø no longer commits evil such as killing, stealing, etc., that tends to land him in the lower worlds. True, he is not yet wholly free from greed and ill-will. He still craves for pleasant objects and he still takes offence at anything that displeases him. But his greed and ill-will are not base and pernicious enough to make him kill or steal. A true Sotæpanna is wholly free from evils that lead to the lower worlds. This is then the way to conquer defilements through insight-knowledge. The Sallekha practice calls for such total conquest. Some yogøs become complacent when they are absorbed in jhæna. Concentration on in-and-out breathing or any other object often results in rigidity of the whole body and total oblivion. To the instructor and to those around the yogø, this state of consciousness may mean absorption in jhæna. But, in the absence of insight-knowledge of næma and rþpa, the distinction between them and their anicca, dukkha and anatta, such a state may indicate nothing more than deep concentration. Later on, the yogø may have serious moral lapses and betray his true character. This is because concentration by itself cannot stamp out defilements. For their total extinction we need insight-knowledge that leads to contact with Nibbæna. Total extinction of defilements is assured only when we find that we are not capable of, say, killing under any circumstances. If we are capable of killing under extenuating circumstances, it is safe to assume that our Sallekha practice is imperfect. We will now consider the constituent factors of the act of killing from the standpoint of Buddhist ethics. There are essential factors. (1) The object must be a living being. (2) There must be the awareness of it being a living being. (3) The doer must have the intent to kill. (4) There must be the effort to kill or to cause death such as striking, cutting, etc. (5) This effort must result in the destruction of life. If any one of these factors is lacking, it cannot be strictly called an act of killing. The destruction of grass or plants that are mistaken for living beings does not constitute an act of killing. It is, of course, unwholesome because it is motivated by ill-will. But it will produce no evil kammic effect worth speaking. Nor is the destruction of a living being which you mistake for an inanimate object an act of killing since there is no intent to kill. No less kammically sterile, is your act that results accidentally in the death of a living being for it is an involuntary act. For example, when a morally scrupulous man is bitten by an ant, he will have to remove it. If his act accidentally leads to the death of the insect, it has no kammic effect because it is devoid of the volition (cetanæ) to kill. Suppose the first four conditions are present but the subject fails to cause the death of his victim. It is a morally unwholesome act, its kammic gravity depending on the life quality of the victim. If the victim dies as a result of your effort, it is an act of killing, pure and simple, and you will have to pay for it according to his place in the universe. If the killer’s volition is weak, the kammic effect is little. If it is strong, the effect is great. Again, the magnitude of the kammic effect is determined by the stress and strain involved in the effort to kill as well as by the moral character of the victim. An act of killing has kammic effect not only when you yourself kill but also when you incite another person to kill. If you show by signs your desire to cause the death of a living being, that too is an act of killing on your part. This is important and should be borne in mind by housewives. It is said that at the fish stalls in the bazaar, fish are usually kept alive and battered to death only on demand by customers. Buying fish that have already been killed by fishmongers may not produce any kammic effect. But to turn your back at the sight of live fish and buy it later on, after it has been done to death, does not make you kammically less guilty. So you should be mindful when you are out shopping in the bazaar. A bhikkhu should avoid eating three kinds of meat viz., the meat of an animal that he has seen being killed expressly for his meal; the meat of an animal which, he understands, has been killed for him; and the meat that has raised doubt as to whether the flesh of the animal has been intended for him. In some villages where there are no meat-vendors, the chicken curry which a layman serves a visiting monk is suspect. Unless he can remove his suspicion, it is not proper for the monk to eat. Eating the three kinds of questionable meat is not a kammic act of killing but according to the Vinaya rules, it is bad and constitutes a clerical offence. According to the Jains, a man who eats the flesh of an animal which, he knows, has been killed for his food, will have to bear half the kammic consequence of killing. This view is not shared by Buddhism. But to eat knowing that the animal has been killed for you shows lack of compassion and may lead to further acts of killing for you. So, it is not proper for a bhikkhu to eat any meat that makes him suspect that the animal has been killed to provide food for him or for another monk or for the Sangha. It is said that the Sinhalese bhikkhus consider it improper to eat eggs. This is reasonable, for, when the eggs are to be offered as food, these have to be freshly boiled or fried for them. There is cause for misgiving even through the bhikkhu sees or hears nothing that makes him suspicious. There are eggs such as those preserved in salt or lime solution which one can eat with a clear conscience. The same is true of boiled eggs in the bazaar. Then there are unhatchable eggs which many people suppose to be lifeless. I, for one, have doubt about this view. The eggs may contain a living being that is destined to die in its embryonic state. For the kammic destiny of some living beings is indeed very strange. Some are conceived in the rocks and crushed as they are in such a narrow place, they would suffer much and one wonders what evil kamma might have consigned them to this terrible fate. Perhaps, there may be such ill-fated living things in the unhatchable eggs. We assume, however, that those who eat eggs supposing them to be lifeless are not kammically guilty because the two essential factors, viz., the sign of life and the will to cause death are lacking. Public feeding on festive occasions in some villages calls for reflection. There are no meat-sellers, and so, if people are to be served with meat, order has to be placed in advance for it. Thus, regrettably, the donor who is out to gain merit by giving alms has to bear at least in part the kammic responsibility for the slaughter of animals. It also raises the question of whether the bhikkhus should eat the meat-curry offered on such occasions. It is said that in some villages pigs are taken to the monastery to be killed on the eve of the religious feast. This is, of course, downright impropriety. Some thirty years ago, a friend of mine who was residing at a village monastery had to protest vehemently against the practice. Again, we have to consider whether it is proper for the monks to eat danbouk (specially prepared rice with meat) supplied by hotels. Such kind of food is questionable in view of the possibility of some animals having been killed specially for the festive occasion. So, the best way to ensure strict conformity with the precept against taking life is to avoid eating meat. If we are not vegetarians, we should be very careful about our food in order to keep ourselves undefiled by any act of killing. The best way to uproot the desire to kill is to watch all phenomena arising from the senses. Those who are not watchful will wish to destroy any being that offends them. But the ever watchful yogø who realizes anicca, dukkha and anatta will not see or hear the offensive object, let alone have the desire to destroy it. In the event of being bitten by an ant, the unmindful and vicious man will kill the insect instantly. The virtuous man suppresses the desire to kill and so, he will remove it. But the watchful yogø will be aware of pain, and he will note its arising and passing away. He will, therefore, have no ill-will, much less the desire to kill. If the pain is unbearable, he will attend to it but never with the desire to kill. Thus, his consciousness is invulnerable to unwholesome thoughts and he is always free from the defilement of killing. The Buddha points out the kammic effects of killing and non-killing in his reply to S |
