A true follower of the Buddha should have few desires. He should be content with what he has and he should try to lessen his defilements. He should have little desire for material possessions or attendants. He should not want to speak of his accomplishments in the study of scriptures or in the practice of meditation. He should keep the depth of his learning or his spiritual attainments to himself. A true Ariya (the Noble One) does not reveal his spiritual insight although he wants to share it with other people. It is only the religious impostor who calls himself an Ariya or an Arahat. Contentment is also essential to spiritual development. ‘One should be satisfied with whatever one has, whether good or bad. Equally essential is the effort to lessen one’s defilements (kilesa). The self-training leading to this goal forms the subject of Sallekha sutta. The sutta is beneficial to meditators and non-meditators alike; it is helpful to all those who wish to overcome immoral desires and cultivate good, wholesome desires. On one occasion while the Buddha was residing at the Jetavana monastery at Sævatthi, Mahæ Cunda, the Arahat who was the younger brother of Særiputta entered a transcendental state of mind called phalasamæpatti. The Arahat usually spent his time in one of these states when he had nothing else to do such as discussion or preaching of the Dhamma. Sometimes, he might abide in jhænasamæpatti or nirodhasamæpatti where all the mental activities are suspended. Or, he might dwell in Arahattsamæpatti that keeps him absorbed in the peace of Nibbæna. After passing away the whole day in this state of mind, the thera Cunda approached the Buddha in the evening and after paying due respects, he asked the following question. “O Buddha, there are many false views in regard to the theory of ego (atta)” or the theory of the world (loka). O Buddha, does a monk dispel these false views or completely renounce them just as he begins to reflect on them?” THE QUESTION NEEDS EXPLANATION Before the rise of Buddhism, a being was called atta or loka (world). There are three lokas, viz., sattaloka (the world of beings), sa³khæraloka (the phenomenal world) and okæsaloka (the physical world). Atta and loka mean essentially the same thing, viz., a living being. Some people regard the physical body as atta or ego or soul. For example, when they bend, stretches or move their hands or feet they believe that it is they themselves who perform these movements. On this view, atta is identified with the physical body. According to some people, atta is not the human body but atta includes the body its relation to the latter is like the relation of a tree to its shadow. The movement of any part of the body is done not by atta but the body that belongs to it. The movement occurs in accordance with the desire of atta. This view identifies atta with the mind. Then, there is the view that the physical body depends on atta just like the scent of a flower depending on the flower. This view, too, makes mind identical with atta. Some people believe that atta is inherent in the body. They say that atta pervades the whole body, its size being dependent on the size of the body. Some say that atta lies quietly in the cavity of the heart like the flame of a fire burning in a calm atmosphere. These beliefs about atta loom large in ancient Indian literature and similar beliefs about the soul are to be found in other countries. The belief in atta does not prevail in a Buddhist country like Myanmar because Buddhism rejects it. Yet some people still believe in the existence of atta or spirit (Myanmar: leikpya) in the body. Some women speak of the spirit being scared or seized by the devil. Many people describe atta as a living entity that enters or leaves the body. There are found kinds of ego-belief that center on the physical body. The first belief regards the body as the ego while the other three beliefs identify it with the mind. Or, the latter three beliefs may have nothing to do with mind or body because today those who believe in the ego insist that the ego is neither the body nor the mind. Despite all their negations, their belief centers on the mind and the body. Similarly, there are four kinds of ego–belief in connection with feeling; (1) the belief that identifies the ego with feeling. “It is I (ego) who feels pain. It is I (ego) who feels happy or unhappy”, (2) the belief that the ego is not identical with feeling but that it has the latter as its property, (3) the belief that makes the feeling dependent on the ego and (4) the belief that makes the ego dependent of feeling. Likewise, we have four kinds of ego-belief in regard to perception (saññæ), another four ego-beliefs in regard to formations (sa³khæra) and still another four ego beliefs bearing on consciousness (viññæ¼a) In short, there are four kinds of ego-belief corresponding to each of the five khandhæs and so, we have altogether twenty kinds of belief about the ago. These ego-beliefs are called attadi¥¥hi or sakkæyadi¥¥hi. Ordinary people or worldlings are usually not free from the ego-belief. The only difference is that some are dominated by it while some do not hold fast to it. We can get or it completely only when we attain the first stage of holiness (Sotæpattimagga). Here, loka is another term for atta. There were eight different theories about loka current in India in the time of the Buddha. (1) The first theory is that loka or atta indestructible, that it exists forever. This is the eternity-view (sassatadi¥¥hi). Its adherents hold that although the physical body is destroyed at death, its essence or atta does not share its fate. The atta passes on to another body and continues to exist there. It is never subject to destruction. This view is somewhat like the belief of some Myanmar people who have no knowledge of Buddhism. For them, conception marks the arrival of a living being in the mother’s womb while death means the departure of the ego-entity for a new abode. Those who are firmly attached to this belief do not practise meditation and so they cannot hope for spiritual progress. The belief is, indeed, a major impediment on the way to Nibbæna. It is not, however, a deep-seated belief among Myanmar Buddhists. They accept the teaching that life is devoid of a permanent atta, that it is only a succession of cause and effect or of psycho-physical states. They believe that the psycho-physical process comes to an end with the extinction of its cause, viz., the defilements consequent on the attainment of four stages of knowledge through meditation. The eternity-belief of the Myanmar people, therefore, does not pose a serious threat to spiritual progress. Yet, even though it is not deep-rooted, one cannot remove it completely until one becomes a Sotæpanna. (2) Opposed to the eternity-belief is nihilism (ucchedadi¥¥hi). According to this belief, the ego-entity only exists until the dissolution of the body after which it is annihilated. In the time of the Buddha, there were only a few people who held this belief, but today the belief is gaining ground because non-Buddhists have put forward specious arguments for it. They reject the idea of a future life on the ground that it does not admit of empirical investigation. Nihilism has become popular probably because of their persuasive art of writing and the strong human desire to enjoy life fully here and now. In reality, there is no immortal soul or annihilation after death (or) there is neither immortality nor complete annihilation. Buddhism denies the ego-entity and recognizes only the psycho-physical process conditioned by the law of cause and effect. There is only the continuity of cause and effect such as ignorance causing kamma-formations (sa³khæra), the sa³khæra in turn causing consciousness for a new life and so forth. Death is not a mystery for it means the final dissolution of the psycho-physical organism that is subject to the process of ceaseless disintegration. Death is not, however, annihilation. Because of defilements and conditioned by kamma, physical and mental events take place in unbroken succession before in a new place and a new life. Rebirth is neither the transmigration of the soul nor the transfer of consciousness and corporeality from one life to another. The physical and mental phenomena arise continually and always pass away. It is not the eye-consciousness that sees nor the ear-consciousness that hears. Each consciousness arises at the appropriate moment and passes away immediately. There is, however, a causal connection between any two consecutive units of consciousness. Likewise, death destroys completely all corporeality and consciousness but there arise new psycho-physical phenomena of existence in a new life and these are causally related to those in the previous life. The rebirth-consciousness and other psycho-physical factors contributing to the new life arise as a result of the attachment to any sign or vision (nimitta) relating to his kamma or future life at the moment of one’s death. Thus, there are only physical and mental phenomena in terms of cause and effect. Since there is no ego-entity, it is a mistake to believe in an immortal soul that survives death and it is equally wrong to speak of annihilation. The psycho-physical process will continue so long as it is not free from defilements. It will come to an end completely only in the case of an accomplished Arahat who passes away, after having been liberated from all attachments. The decease of the Arahat or his parinibbæna is not annihilation. It means only the complete cessation of suffering inherent in the psycho-physical process. This process should be studied through Buddhist scriptures and through the practice of meditation. (3) According to the third theory, atta or loka is eternal and also non-eternal. This theory assumes the eternity of the creator of the universe but denies this attribute to his creatures. It is labelled ekaccasassatavæda in Brahmajæla sutta. Although the theory says that most creatures are impermanent, it does not accept annihilation at death. It holds that atta transmigrates to another abode after the dissolution of the physical body. Hence, it belongs to the group of eternity-beliefs. (4) The fourth theory says that loka or atta is neither eternal nor non-eternal. It is hard to understand this view. It is a speculation that makes no sense. Since it says nothing definitely about the atta, it is also called amaravikkhepavæda, amara being the name of a species of fish that is hard to grasp. (5) The fifth theory says that atta or loka is finite. In other words, a living being is a world of its own. The atta which pervades the body of a being is limited in size to that of the respective body. Thus, the atta of a human being is supposed to be at most a fathom in height and from two and a half feet to three feet in girth. Some say that atta lies in the cavity of the heart and that its size depends on that of its habitat. It is also said that atta is as small as an electron (paramænumrþ) when it is in search of a new abode. (6) The next theory is that atta or loka is infinitely great. It rejects the idea of an individual soul in each living being and holds that every being is a part of the great Soul (paramatta) of God who created the Universe. The paramatta is infinitely great and pervades the whole universe and so atta too is infinitely great. These theories which insist on the infinity or otherwise of atta are to be found in modern Indian religious books. Buddhist commentaries attribute them to illusion about the size of the counter-image (pa¥ibhæganimitta) that arises during the practice of concentration (kasi¼a) and passes for atta or loka. But the illusion occurs only to a few individuals at a higher stage of jhæna or mental absorption. The beliefs that I have mentioned are those of common people. (7) Some believe that atta or loka is finite as well as infinite. This is somewhat like the ekaccasassatavæda (theory 3). It apparently means that some, that is, the attas of those created by God are finite while the paramatta of God is infinite. (8) Again some say that atta or loka is neither finite nor infinite. This too is a nonsensical speculation (like theory 4), and amaravikkhepavæda that gives no definite answer. All these theories are absurd because they revolve about atta which does not exist. They make confusion worse confounded just like the speculations about the non-existent horn of the hare or the hair of the tortoise. Yet these theories appealed to those who were not the followers of the Buddha. So, the thera Mahæ Cunda asked the Buddha whether a monk can completely overcome these beliefs just at the beginning his meditation. In other words, the question of thera Cunda was whether the attainment of concentration (samædhi) or joy (pøti) or the seeing of light at the early stage of meditation meant the elimination of false views about loka or atta. There was ground for raising such a question. Some people believed that concentration (samædhi) or mental absorption (jhæna) or joy (pøti) or other varieties of experience that are termed upakkilesa (defilements of insight) would suffice to ensure the conquest of false beliefs and the attainment of Arahatship. Cunda’s questions was designed to enlighten such deluded and conceited people. The practice of meditation has an air of holiness and any experience that is somewhat unusual is likely to be mistaken for an extraordinary insight. In the absence of a good guide or a proper teacher, the yogø tends to overestimate himself and have illusions about his spiritual attainments on the basis of his trivial and slightly unusual experience. This is not peculiar to the present age. Even in the time of the Buddha, among those who practised meditation under the expert guidance of the Blessed One and the great Arahats like Særiputta who gave instructions in both theory and practice, there were some yogøs who harboured delusions because of their unusual experiences. It is safe to assume that nowadays the number of such yogøs may be very great. In reality, the attainment of spiritual goal means discrimination between corporeality and consciousness, realization of their constant arising and passing away and clear understanding of the impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness or suffering (dukkha) and insubstantiality or non-self (anatta) of existence. Above all, the yogø must have illumination as regards the nature of phenomenal existence, viz., its state of flux and dissolution; illumination resulting from disenchantment, weariness and equanimity. It is only when he has these illuminations or insight knowledge (ñæ¼a) that the yogø can see Nibbæna. It is only when he thus sees Nibbæna at least on the first path of holiness (Sotæpattimagga) that he can get rid of the false views about atta or loka. The Buddha’s reply to the question of Cunda is as follows:– “Cunda, it is true that in this world there are many false views about atta or loka. These views stem from five groups of mind-body complex (khandhas), they lie dormant in the five khandhas, they constantly focus on the five khandhas. But if a man knows, “This set of five khandhas is not mine, it is not my atta,” if he thus sees things as they really are with his insight-knowledge, he will completely rid himself of the false views.” It is hard to understand both the question and the answer. Cunda asked whether it was possible to overcome the wrong views just as one begins to reflect on them. But what is the beginning of reflection? The Buddha’s answer is that contemplation of the insubstantiality of the five khandhas means the elimination of the wrong views. But how is one to contemplate it? In order to be free from wrong views about atta or loka, we should know their mainspring as well as the misconceptions about it that give rise to these views. So, according to the Buddha’s teaching, these wrong beliefs will dominate us if we naively regard the five khandhas as our belonging or as our atta and we will overcome them when we contemplate the impersonality of the khandhas. The five khandhas are to be found in the body of every living being. They are (1) corporeality (rþpa), (2) feeling (vedanæ), (3) perception (saññæ), (4) mental formations (sa³khæra), and (5) consciousness (viññæ¼a). The first group refers to the whole physical body that is made up of billions of infinitesimal particles of physical matter. The second group is the group of feelings, pleasant or unpleasant, that depend on our contact with the external world. Perception is the mental phenomenon that helps us to remember the sense-objects; sa³khæras are mental formations that give rise to bodily, verbal or mental behaviour. This group includes sensorial contact (phassa), reflection (manasikæra), volition (cetanæ), greed (lobha), ill-will or anger (dosa) and other mental factors numbering fifty. As for the last group viz., consciousness, there are many kinds of it as determined by the corresponding sense-organs such as eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, etc. Thus we have physical and mental groups (næma-rþpa) the physical being the corporeality and the mental comprising the four groups of psychic activities. The five khandhas become active when there is contact between the senses and their respective objects. When any object is seen, the eye together with the whole body plus the visual object constitute the corporeality (rþpa), the pleasant or unpleasant feeling at the sight is vedanæ, cognition of the object is saññæ, paying attention to the object or making any effort to see it represents the sa³khæra and the awareness of the object seen in viññæ¼a. Whenever we see, only these five khandhas occur and there is no atta besides them. Yet, people usually identify each of the five khandhas involved in the event of seeing with their atta or ego-entity. When a man sees himself, he regards the visual object as his ego-entity and when he sees some living being, he considers it the ego-entity of somebody. Thus the ego-belief is rooted in the human tendency to identify the five khandhas with ego-entity at the moment of seeing. Likewise, the five khandhas come into play when we hear or smell or taste or touch or think. Again, we have the ego-illusion that stems from the human tendency to regard the khandhas as the ego-entity. Most of the ordinary people are under the influence of the ego-belief that has its origin in consciousness since they usually make their ego identical with their mental activities and stages such as emotions, e.g. happiness or unhappiness, feelings, memory, perception, intention, effort, and so forth. In his reply to Cunda, the Buddha said that the erroneous views about ego “arise, lie dormant and occur constantly”. They arise because of misconceptions about the khandhas at the moment of seeing, etc. They arise not once or twice but repeatedly. They lie dormant in the sense that although they may not arise at the moment of seeing, etc., because of wise reflection (yonisomanasikæra) etc., they are ready to do so under certain circumstances. The five khandhas which become manifest when we see, etc., leave a clear impression on us and reflections on such impressions may give rise to greed, ill-will, ignorance, conceit and so forth. There may also prevail a false view which identifies our experience with the ego (“It was I who saw”, etc). Thus, the potential for the ego-belief lies in the clear memory of sense-objects. AVERTING DEFILEMENT POTENTIAL THROUGH CONTEMPLATION In order to counter the latent defilements, we should contemplate the arising and passing away of khandhas, their impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and insubstantiality (anicca, dukkha and anatta). We should try to see them as they really are. We should note, “seeing, seeing” at the moment of seeing and in the same way we must be mindful of other sensations that result from hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking. The objects of introspection in regard to the sense of touch are manifold. For this sensation is involved at the moment of walking, sitting, lying, bending, etc. The feelings of warmth, painfulness, itchiness or tiredness, too, stem from the sense of touch. There are also numerous objects or contemplation at the moment of consciousness of mental events (“intending”, “knowing”, “thinking”, etc). Pleasure, joy, sorrow, anger, craving and other emotions may also be the objects of introspection. But the beginner in meditation cannot introspect every physical or mental event; nor can he develop the power of concentration by so doing. So, he should begin with a few physical activities such as sitting or touching. Or, he can practise in-and-out breathing and watch the nostril-tip, noting the inhalation and exhalation. But the best method that we recommend is that of watching the abdominal motion, i.e. the rising and falling of the abdomen. But the yogø’s mindfulness is not confined to abdominal motion. While watching the abdominal rising and falling, you should also note pains, aches, bending, stretching, etc. In short, you should watch all mental and physical events. Begin with the abdominal motion but as you get used to mindfulness, you should extend it to all other psycho-physical phenomena. As you gain practice in mindfulness, you will become aware of only the phenomena such as seeing and hearing without any sign of permanence, pleasant or unpleasant character or ego-entity. Initially, you will see the corporeality as the known object and the mind as the knowing subject but with the development of concentration, you will find only cause and effect. Further strengthening of the power of concentration will then lead you to realize the perpetual arising and passing away of phenomena at every moment. Then you will come to know the impermanence of the five khandhas and this knowledge is an antidote to conceit just as awareness of imminent death is bound to counter inordinate pride. So, whenever the yogø realizes that everything is transitory, he knows, “This is not I.” Moreover, he is fully aware of the unsatisfactoriness of everything that arises and invariably passes away. He does not regard any sense-object as his belonging, an object of attachment or as something on which he can depend. So, whenever he is aware of the impermanence and unsatisfactoriness of things, he reflects, “This is not mine.” Again, since everything which the yogø watches conflicts with his desire and passes away in accordance with their nature, he comes to realize the futility and impersonality of the khandha. This realization of anatta (non-existence of ego) is of paramount importance. Whenever the yogø contemplates the three marks of the khandhas and knows, “This is not mine. This I am not,” he will have no ego-illusion about them. He will not regard himself as the subject who sees or hears and so, through meditation he will for the time being free himself from the belief in ego-entity. But this temporary elimination of the ego-illusion does not mean its complete eradication. The illusion will arise whenever the yogø fails to contemplate the khandhas. Insight-knowledge of the three marks of khandhas together with their arising and passing away will in due course lead to bha³gañæ¼a which makes the yogø see only the dissolution of all phenomena. Then, he will find the sense-object as well as the consciousness that he notes continually vanishing. He understands clearly that everything is impermanent, unsatisfactory, insubstantial and unworthy of attachment. Later on there arises “bhayañæ¼a” i.e., knowledge of the terrifying character of the khandhas. This gives rise to knowledge of their defects (ædønavañæ¼a) which in turn leads of wearing or disgust (nibbidæ-ñæ¼a). Then the yogø wants to renounce the five khandhas (muccitukamyatæñæ¼a) and he exerts more effort to contemplate (pa¥isa³khæñæ¼a). This results in detachment from the khandhas (sa³khærupekkhæñæ¼a), with the maturity of this knowledge there emerges the Sotæpattimaggañæ¼a when the yogø sees the peace of Nibbæna wherein all the physical and mental phenomena become totally extinct. At this stage, insight into the three signs of existence suffices to eliminate the ego-belief. According to Sallekha sutta, the knowledge (“This is not mine” “This I am not” “This is not my atta”) is sufficient to overcome the ego-illusion. Once one has seen the Nibbæna, it is not possible for anyone to have illusion about the khandhas. The illusion is completely eliminated and hence, the Buddha’s reply to Cunda that we have already quoted. HOW TO CONTEMPLATE FOR THE ELIMINATION OF THE BELIEF It is easy to know through book-learning, hearing a sermon or memorization that the khandhas do not belong to the ego, that as such, they are unworthy of attachment. But neither this hearsay knowledge nor the intellectual acceptance of the fact in itself helps us to remove defilements. It is only the intuitive, empirical knowledge that will ensure their riddance. So, through constant introspection the yogø notes that everything that arises passes away immediately and he gains an insight into the impermanence of all phenomena, their frightful aspect and unsatisfactoriness. He knows well that there is nothing internally or externally that belongs to the ego and so he becomes free from attachment. Moreover, this insight helps him to overcome ego-centric pride. Pride is due to ignorance of the transitory nature of existence. Ordinary people do not observe the arising and passing away of psycho-physical phenomena and they believe that the physical body and consciousness last a lifetime, that the man who now sees and hears is the same individual who saw and heard before. This illusion of permanence and identity is the main-spring of pride and uppishness. But, for the yogø who is aware of the ceaseless dissolution of mind-body complex, there is no cause for conceit. Since every physical or mental phenomenon arises and vanishes instantly, there is no reason to believe in a living ego-entity. The object known as well as the knowing consciousness is always subject to dissolution and the only reality is the ceaseless flux of psycho-physical elements that are passing away. When the yogø develops his insight-knowledge everything that arises disappears as soon as he notes it. If the mind wanders while observing the rising and falling of the abdomen, the yogø instantly notes it and it (the wandering mind) disappears. If he has a sensation of heat in a certain part of the body, he directs his attention to it and it is gone the next moment together with the consciousness that focuses on it. Certainly, the perpetual dissolution of the psycho-physical phenomena cannot represent a living ego-entity, a man or a woman with a permanent self. Recognition of this fact is the real insight-knowledge of the impersonality of existence. Some yogøs say that they see the ceaseless arising and passing away of the objects of introspection but that they are not well aware of what is happening to the introspecting mind. In that case, they are not yet free from ego-belief in regard to the subjective role of consciousness. But those who constantly observe every physical or mental phenomenon that stems from the six senses in accordance with the teaching of Satipa¥¥hæna sutta find all sense-objects as well as the observing consciousness constantly passing away and so they become fully aware of the impermanence of everything. Then after passing through the successive stages of insight-knowledge, the yogø attains the first path of holiness and sees Nibbæna, the cessation of all psycho-physical phenomena. Only then will he be free from all misconceptions about atta or loka. This is what the Buddha taught when he replied to Cunda. In short, it is the insight-knowledge of the continuous flux of all psycho-physical phenomena together with the three marks of existence that brings home to the yogø the futility of attachment, conceit and ego-belief and makes him see Nibbæna on the first path of holiness. It is only then that he is wholly free from false beliefs. The development of concentration or the mere knowledge of the arising and passing away of everything or the emergence of insight-knowledge in itself does not mean the elimination of the beliefs. On the contrary, the yogø who is wedded to such beliefs tends to overestimate himself as a result of his attainment of jhæna. This is pointed out in the further dialogues of the Buddha. “Cunda, I will tell you about the cause of misconception and conceit in connection with the practice of meditation. Among my disciples, there are some monks who have attained the first jhæna that is characterized by joy (pøti) and freedom from sensuous desire, hindrances and discursive thinking.” Jhæna is the concentration of attention on one single object such as earth, water, in-and-out-breathing, an organ of the body or a corpse. This state of consciousness involving concentration and tranquility is the samatha jhæna. The other jhæna is the vipassanæ jhæna which has, as its object the contemplation and insight-knowledge of the three marks of existence, namely, anicca, dukkha and anatta. In the first jhæna the yogø is free from sensuous desires that always dominate ordinary people and even embarrass the meditators who have not yet developed concentration. The first jhæna also ensures freedom from the other four hindrances viz., ill-will, torpor and laziness, restlessness and worry and doubt. This freedom is enjoyed not only while the yogø is absorbed in jhæna but also just before and just after his attainment of this state of consciousness. Freedom from hindrances is followed by joy (pøti) and happiness (sukha). The yogø has an indescribable feeling of ecstasy pervading his whole body. He is completely free from stiffness, tiredness and other physical discomforts. Thus, besides his freedom from hindrances the yogø has five attributes indicating his absorption in the first jhæna, viz., ecstatic rapture, intense joy, very active thought conception (vitakka), discursive thinking (vicæra) and one-pointedness of mind ekaggatæ or samædhi. The body of the yogø who is absorbed in the first jhæna is motionless, tough and composed. This state of jhænic consciousness may last two or three hours; or it may last the whole day or the whole night. There is no collapsing or swaying of the body. It is a mistake to regard, as some people do, lying or rolling on the floor as a sign of spiritual attainment. These attainments designated by such terms as jhæna, magga or phala are appanajavana which we may translate as attainment-impulsion for the commentaries define it as maintenance and strengthening of bodily postures such as sitting and standing. Because of the freedom from hindrances and the five varieties of experience that characterize the first jhæna, the yogø tends to be elated and conceited. But in his reply to Cunda, the Buddha says unequivocally that the attainment of the first jhæna does not mean the lessening of defilements. There are grounds for delusion on the part of the yogø who is absorbed in the first jhæna. He hopes to have some unusual experience and so if he does have such experience, he tends to be deluded into a false sense of attainment. Some have delusions because they are misguided by incompetent teachers. In the case of some yogøs, relative freedom from hindrances and joy and other experience are satisfying enough to give cause for self-complacency. In fact, however, this jhæna experience is a far cry from the higher insight-knowledge of anicca, dukkha and anatta. It is by no means to be confused with the practice of sallekha that helps to lessen defilements. For the first jhæna can only keep off the defilements, whereas, through the sallekha practice the yogø can eventually remove them, root and branch. Yet, the attainment of this jhæna tends to give the yogø the impression of being a Sotæpanna or an Arahat. There were bhikkhus subject to such illusions in the time of the Buddha and after his parinibbæna. Once five hundred monks meditated in the forest according to the instructions of the Buddha. When they became absorbed in jhæna, they found themselves with-out any defilement and so being convinced of their spiritual attainment, they came to report to the Buddha. At the monastery gate they met Ænandæ who-informed them of the Buddha’s instruction that they should see the Teacher only after visiting the cemetery. So, the monks went to the cemetery. It appeared that in those days corpses were left unburied at the cemetery. The corpses to be burnt were apparently in a fresh condition at the time of the monks’ visit. At the sight of the decomposed corpses, the monks were filled with disgust. Yet, they could not help lusting for the bodies of women who had died recently. Only then did they realize that they were not yet wholly free from defilements. Then the Buddha emitted diving rays from his abode and preached a sermon. On hearing the sermon, all the monks became Arahats. About three of four hundred years after the parinibbæna of the Buddha, there lived in southern Sri Lanka an Arahat called Dhammadinnæ. At that time there was an elderly monk named Mahænæga who regarded himself as an Arahat. One day, Dhammadinna went to the elderly monk and asked many questions to which the latter answered easily. Dhammadinnæ complimented the monk on his deep wisdom and inquired of him when he first became an Arahat. He said he had been an Arahat for more than sixty years. Did he possess psychic powers? Yes, he did. At the request of his interlocutor, the monk created a big elephant. Would he now will that the elephant trumpet and rush towards him? He willed accordingly but as the animal came rushing, he became frightened and was about to run away when Dhammadinnæ seized the fringe of his robe and said, “Sir, would an Arahat have any fear?” Only then did Mahænæga know that he was a mere worldling. He meditated in accordance with the instructions of Dhammadinnæ and became a real Arahat. The story of another ill-informed yogø monk is told in the commentary on Sallekha sutta. He was called Cþ¹asuma and he dwelt at a forest retreat that turned out many Arahats in those days. Cþ¹asuma, too, considered himself an Arahat. At the request of Dhammadinnæ, he created a lake and a big louts flower with a girl dancing and singing sweetly on it. Dhammadinnæ told the monk to watch the dancing girl for a moment and went into a room. Then while the monk was watching the girl of his own making, the sensual desire that had been lying dormant for sixteen years began to rear its ugly head. Being disillusioned, the monk meditated according to Dhammadinnæ’s instructions and attained real Arahatship. These stories point to the misconceptions current in ancient India when the Buddhist religion was flourishing. The yogø monks of those days were spiritually advanced and endowed with psychic powers. Their misconception was due to unusual power of concentration. Nowadays, some yogøs have illusions without making any spiritual progress. When the yogø who correctly practises gains an insight into the arising and passing away of all mental phenomena, he is overwhelmed with a variety of unusual experiences such as seeing the light, rapture, tranquility, joy, faith and so forth. In the Visuddhimagga, the yogø is assured of these experiences. If the practice of meditation does not bring about these experiences, the question arises as to whether the method is correct or whether the yogø is lacking in effort. On the other hand, the yogø who has such experiences may overestimate his attainments. The first jhæna is not the practice of sallekhandhamma that helps to root out the defilements. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha terms it di¥¥hadhamma-sukhavihæra, that is, living in bliss here and now. While the yogø is absorbed in jhæna, his consciousness is fixed on a single object. With his mind free from all unwholesome distractions, he is calm and peaceful. This state may last continuously for two or three hours. The Buddha pointed out, too, how illusion and self-complacency may arise from the second jhæna with its three characteristics, viz., rapture, joy and one-pointedness of mind, or from the third jhæna with its joy and one-pointedness of mind or from the fourth jhæna with its equanimity and one-pointedness of mind. Of course, the second, the third and the fourth jhænas are more sublime than the preceding states of consciousness but they ensure only bliss in the present life and are by no means to be equated with sallekha practice that is designed to eliminate defilements. Nor is sallekha practice synonymous with the jhæna of ækæsænañcæyatana (sphere of unbounded space), jhæna of viññæ¼añcæyatana (sphere of unbounded consciousness), jhæna of ækiñcaññæyatana (sphere of nothingness) and jhæna of nevasaññæ-næsaññæyatana (sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception). These jhænas do not help to overcome defilements. They cause only peaceful bliss and as such are termed santavihæra. Insight-meditation (vipassanæ) and jhæna have some characteristics in common. When the practice of mindfulness is well established at the exploratory stage (sammæsanañæ¼a) there are conception of object (vitakka), repeated reflection (vicæra), joy (pøti), happiness (sukha), and concentration of attention (samædhi). Thus, whenever the yogø observes any phenomenon, his insight-meditation is somewhat like the first jhæna with its five characteristics. When the yogø gains insight-knowledge of the arising and passing away of all phenomena, he is barely aware of an arising object without thought perception or reflection. He has intense joy, rapture and tranquility. So his meditation is somewhat like the second jhæna with its three attributes. The disappearance of the light, etc., (upakkilesa: defilements of the mind) marks an advance in the insight-knowledge of the arising and passing away of phenomena. Then there is no joy but happiness is very intense. The mind is tranquil and free from distractions. The yogø shares the joy and the one-pointedness of mind that are characteristics of the third jhæna. The higher levels of insight-knowledge such as “bha³gañæ¼a” wherein the yogø sees only the passing away usually have nothing to do with joy. They are characterized by equanimity and one-pointedness of mind. The former is especially pronounced in the sa³khærupekkhañæ¼a. At this stage the insight-meditation is akin to the fourth jhæna with its two attributes of equanimity and one-pointedness of mind. Furthermore, at times the yogø’s whole-body disappears, giving him the impression of being in space. At that moment he is like a person absorbed in ækæsænañcæyatana jhæna. At other times, attention is fixed exclusively on consciousness and then the yogø’s state of consciousness resembles viññæ¼añcæyatana jhæna. On occasions, it seems as though he were watching nothingness, a state somewhat like ækiñcaññæyatana jhæna. Sometimes the consciousness may be so transcendental that it becomes non-existent, a state on par with that of nevasaññæ-næsaññæyatana jhæna. These characteristics which the insight-meditation has in common with jhæna often leads to self-complacency which is an obstacle to spiritual progress. So in meditation it is necessary to note these unusual experiences and reject them. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha, after pointing out the misleading character or the jhæna, proceeds to spell out the sallekha practice that is calculated to stamp out the defilements. The sutta mentions forty-four kinds of unwholesome acts, speech and thoughts which we must avoid in order to overcome defilements. These are as follows: (1) Causing harm to a living being–vihimsæ. (2) Killing–pæ¼ætipæta. (3) Stealing–adinnæ-dæna. (4) Unchastity–abrahmacariya. (5) Lying–musævæda. (6) Slandering–pisu¼avæcæ. (7) Abusive or harsh language–pharusavæcæ. (8) frivolous talk–samphapalæpa. (9) covetousness–abhijjhæ. (10) ill-will – vyæpæda. (11) Wrong views–micchædi¥¥hi. (12) Wrong intention–micchæsa³kappa. (13) Wrong speech–micchævæcæ. (14) Wrong action–micchækammanta. (15) Wrong livelihood–micchæ-jøva. (16) Wrong effort–micchævæyæma. (17) Wrong mindfulness–micchæsati. (18) Wrong concentration–micchæsamædhi. (19) Wrong reflection–micchæñæ¼a. (20) false sense of freedom–micchævimutti. (21) torpor and lethargy–thønamiddha. (22) Restlessness–uddhacca. (23) Doubt–vici-kicchæ. (24) Anger–kodha. (25) Enmity–upanæha. (26) Ingratitude–makkha. (27) Vying with people of upper crust–palæsa. (28) Envy–issæ. (29) Miserliness–macchariya. (30) Hypocrisy and boastfulness–sæ¥heyya. (31) Concealment of one’s fault and deception–mæyæ. (32) Lack of respect for those who are worthy of respect–thambha. (33) Excessive conceit –attimæna. (34) Intractability–dubbacata dovacassat. (35) Bad friendship–pæpamitta. (36) Forgetting to do good things–pamæda. (37) Lack of faith–asaddhata. (38) Having no shame in doing evil–ahørika. (39) Having no fear of the consequences of the evil deeds–anottappa. (40) Intellectual poverty–appasutata. (41) Laziness-kosajja. (42) Unmindfulness–mutthasacca. (43) Lack of insight-knowledge–duppaññatæ. (44) Bigotry–sandi¥¥hiparæmæsa. ELABORATION OF SALLEKHA PRACTICE jhæna in itself does not ensure the total extinction of these defilements. Their total extinction calls for completed self-training in respect of morality, concentration and wisdom (søla, samædhi and paññæ) that run counter to them. To this end, the yogø must attain at least the first stage of the holy path. At this stage, wrong views, bigotry, skepticism, the wish to kill, in short, all the defilements that can land a man in the lower worlds are rooted out. This extinction is of paramount importance. Concentration, jhæna psychic powers and special illumination count for little without the extinction of defilements. For the non-Buddhist yogø, the attainment of jhæna and its preservation till death mean rebirth and longevity in the world of Brahmæs. But in due course of time, he will return to the deva or human worlds and then his bent for sensual pleasures and evil deeds may again land him on the lower planes of existence. Moreover, the Buddhist yogø who is complacent because of his jhæna attainment does not fare any better than the jhæna non-Buddhist yogø in that he is still in danger of descent into the nether world. But should he practise meditation on the basis of jhæna, he can free himself from such a danger. So, the Buddha told disciples not to remain self-assured over jhæna but to practise the Sallekha dhamma that would ensure the total eradication of unwholesome propensities. The first precept that the Buddha enjoined on his disciples is that of inoffensiveness or non-violence (ahimsæ). We should avoid hurting any living being if only because we do not wish to be hurt and the doctrine of ahimsæ is acceptable to all living beings. India has a high regard for this doctrine of ahimsæ. It tops the list of five major rules of conduct binding on the Jains. But the Jains goes to extreme in their interpretation of ahimsæ. From their point of view, cold water, green grass or plant and earth are animate and so we should not hurt them. The Vinaya rules forbidding the destruction of plant and grass and digging of earth were designed to avoid controversy and ill-will. In reality, grass, plants and earth are not living beings and a non-bhikkhu who cuts the plants or digs the earth is by no means doing any evil. But the Buddha-dhamma insists that we should not hurt any living being, whether big or small, that is sensitive to pain and pleasure. Inoffensiveness is more enabling then jhæna and in order to understand this, we should remember that there are three levels of this defilement or offensiveness. First, we have the kind of offensiveness labelled vøtikkamakilesæ which means hurting a living being physically or by word of mouth. The antidote against this kind of defilement is morality. A man who pays regard to his moral character will not hurt other people. He may have ill-will but because of his moral sense he does not give vent to it physically or verbally. The aggressive thoughts which we harbour are called pariyu¥¥hæna kilesæ. We have to overcome this kind of defilement though upacæra–samædhi and appanæsamædhi jhænas, i.e., initial stage of concentration and attainment concentration associated with jhæna. Concentration on an object or in-and-out breathing, too, helps to counteract unwholesome thoughts. This is overcoming defilements by repression (vikkhambhanapahæna) which the commentaries liken to the pushing aside of moss in a pond by a pot thrown into it. The yogø may be free from ill-will in his post-jhænic state of consciousness for many years, but just like the surface of water that is again covered with moss, the mind of the yogø will be defiled when there is cause for defilement as in the case of the two Sinhalese monks with supernormal powers. Lying dormant in a person who does not contemplate the psycho-physical phenomena that arise from the six senses or who has not yet reached the Anægæmi stage are aggressive desires that become manifest under favourable circumstances. The Pæ¹i term for this is anusayakilesæ. A physical of mental event that escapes our notice leaving us unaffected may make us ill-tempered when it is recalled. Such latent defilements have to be eliminated through insight-knowledge. The yogø who constantly watches all psycho-physical phenomena will take no offence in the face of an offensive sense-object. To him everything is momentary, subject to anicca, dukkha and anatta. So neither his sense contact nor any recollection of it makes him angry. This is the way to overcome aggressiveness through meditation (tada³ga pahæna). Every object which a person fails to watch is a potential source of ill-will. But meditation is the basic sallekha practice that enables one to stamp out its cause. Once a man attains the first stage of holiness, he is free from the gross forms of ill-will that may consign him to the nether worlds. At the second, i.e., the Sakadægæmi stage, the ill-will becomes still weaker while at the Anægæmi stage it becomes completely extinct. The sallekha practice requires the yogø to avoid aggressiveness till the attainment of the Anægæmi stage. Hence, its superiority over jhæna. The yogøs at our meditation center are dedicated to the sallekha way of life. Sallekha practice is part and parcel of their morality. They constantly watch all the feelings and sensations that from contact with the external world and every moment of their awareness means suppression of aggressiveness, and in due course, they eradicate it completely. This accords with the Buddha’s teaching in the Sallekha sutta. “Other people may do harm to a living being. But we will not harm any living thing. Thus, you should practise the Sallekha dhamma that will lessen the defilements.” This teaching also applies to the other 33 defilements. It concerns the practical phase of the Sallekha dhamma. The Buddha preached too, its reflective phase. “Cunda, I say that even the mere thought of wholesome dhammas is very beneficial to you.” The mere thought about dæna (alms-giving), søla (morality), and bhævanæ (mind development) is highly beneficial. The mere intention to observe the moral precepts, to hear a sermon or to practise meditation is conducive to earthly or heavenly bliss. On his death bed, Ma¥¥haku¼dalø, a rich man’s son saw the Buddha and he was so much full of wholesome thoughts that he became a deva in Tævatimsæ, one of the celestial abodes. A frog, too, was once carried away by the Buddha’s sermon and on its death became a denizen of the deva world. Just after the Buddha’s sarinibbæna, a woman of Ræjagaha city was intent on offering some flowers to a thþpa (pagoda) but on the way she was gored to death by a bull. Then, she found herself with a golden chariot among’ the retinue of Sakka, the king. In view of this meritorious character of wholesome thoughts, it is hardly necessary to dwell on the benefits that result from carrying them into effect. Prosperity in the human or deva world is rooted in such wholesome thoughts. These thoughts result in doing deeds which in turn lead to happiness on earth and in the deva world. The effort to become a Buddha or an Arahat also originates with wholesome thoughts. The yogøs meditating here (at this center) are motivated by such thoughts and in due course they will have the illumination that they seek. So, even the conception of a wholesome idea, thought or desire is very important. The Buddha says: “Cunda, the mere thought of ahimsæ (inoffensiveness) is beneficial. You should cultivate the thought, ‘Other people may hurt a living being, but I will not hurt any being.” Another method of approach is the Sallekha way of life is that of avoidance. Here in the sutta, the Buddha cites the examples of a good road and a good harbour. Suppose there are two roads, one good and the other bad, or who harbours, one good and the other bad. One can avoid the bad road and the bad harbour by going along the good road and by using the good harbour. Similarly, if one follows the path of non violence, it means one avoids the path of aggressiveness. Although the sutta refers to aggressive persons (vihimsækassa) the Buddha’s teaching applies to unaggressive persons as well. For, although a man does not now commit aggression either physically or by word of mouth, he might have committed it in his previous existences and he may commit it in future by force of circumstances. No one is wholly free from the defilement of aggressiveness until one attains Anægæmi stage or arahatship. So, we should practise the Sallekha dhamma and strive to attain the higher stages of Ariyas that will help to wipe out the defilements. Another aspect of the practice of non-violence (ahimsæ) is its tendency to elevate the devotee to the higher worlds. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha says that all bad deeds tend to land the doer in the lower worlds, whereas all good deeds ensure rebirth in the higher worlds. All bad deeds have their roots in greed (lobha), ill-will (dosa) and ignorance (moha). Major misdeeds such as killing and stealing may lead to rebirth in the nether worlds. Minor misdeeds motivated by intention or ill-will do not cause much suffering to the wrongdoer but they tend to prolong the misery in the cycle of life. Those who have committed gross misdeeds, such as killing have to suffer not only in the lower worlds but also in the human world where they may be reborn by virtue of their good kamma. Retribution follows for many lifetimes in the form of a short span of life, physical afflictions, poverty and so forth. Ill-health is often the kammic result of aggression which was committed in a previous existence. An evil deed will at best lead to rebirth as a poor, wretched deva in the heavenly abode and at worst it means damnation in Avøci, the lowest hell. In the time of Kakusanda Buddha, one Mæra, called Dusi, instantly landed in Avøci hell because of his evil design against the Buddha and the Arahats. On the other hand, good deeds such as dæna and søla tend to lead the doer up the successive levels of existence in the worlds of human beings devas and Brahmæs. They make accessible, too, the paths of holiness such as Sotæpanna, etc. Good deeds help to turn the doer into a rich man or a king as the case of a flower-girl who offered the Buddha some food and before long became the queen of king Kosala. When a bottle of oil is broken in water, the heavy pieces of glass sink, while the light oil rises up. Likewise, bad deeds tend to drag down a person whereas good deeds contribute to his uplift. A man who does good deeds will enjoy longevity, good health, beauty and so on. He will become a deva or a Brahmæ in a future life. He can also attain the paths of holiness. The person who has thus made spiritual or material progress on the basis of his good deeds is well secure. So you should seek higher status, spiritual or otherwise, through the practice of non-aggression. We now come to the last aspect of sallekha practice, viz., that of extinguishing the fires of defilements. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha says that there is no reason why a man who is wholly sunk in a quagmire will be able to save another man in a similar predicament. But it is reasonable to assume that a man who is not sunk in the quagmire can save another man who is not bogged down in the mud. Likewise, only the man who has disciplined himself, trained himself in the threefold division of the Eightfold Noble path and extinguished the fires of defilements will be able to help another man in regard to discipline, training and extinction of defilements. According to the commentaries, the quagmire in the sutta refers to sensual pleasures and a person who loves pleasure is likened to a man sunk in a quagmire. The implication is that a man who is mired in pleasure cannot save another man from a similar entanglement. This should be especially borne in mind by those who give instructions in meditation without having practised it as well as by those who are being guided by such teachers. The commentaries say that there are people who have become enlightened after hearing the speeches of the worldlings and that such enlightenment through proper reflection on proper speeches means deliverance by the Buddha. But such cases are exceptional. Here, the substance of the Buddha’s teaching is that one who is not free from the dangers of samsæra (life-cycle) and the lower worlds cannot free others from such dangers, that one who has not overcome defilements cannot help others to do so. Just as a fire cannot be used for putting out another fire, so also a defilement cannot neutralize another defilement. Violence cannot extinguish violence. It can be ended only by non-violence. Let us then vow that we will avoid violence; that we will cultivate thoughts of non-violence; that we will keep off violence with non-violence; that we will raise our status through non-violence and that we will put out the fire of defilement of violence with non-violence. These are the five væras (aspects of sallekha practice) which the Buddha explains in the sutta. KAMMIC EFFECTS OF VIOLENCE AND NON-VIOLENCE The kammic effects of violence and non-violence are spelled out in the Culakammavibha³ga sutta of Majjhima-nikæya. Subha, a young man asked the Buddha why some people live long, why some live only a few years, why some are healthy and some unhealthy, why some are good-looking and some ugly and so forth. The Buddha says: “All living beings have their own deeds (kamma) as their own possessions; they inherit their kamma; kamma is the main cause of their present condition. They have kamma as their main support. It is kamma which determines their lot in life.” In response to the request of Subha, the Buddha enlarged on the kammic results of violence and non-violence. The gist of the Buddha’s teaching is that those who treat others cruelly go to hell after death. On release from hell, they suffer from many diseases wherever they are reborn. On the other hand, deva world is the post-mortem destiny of the kind-hearted people who practise non-violence; and when they again become human beings, they are free from disease and are healthy. THE STORY OF THERA PUTIGATTATISSA The kammic consequence of cruelty and violence is evident in the story of bhikkhu Tissa who lived in Sævatthø city in the lifetime of the Buddha. While training himself in the spheres of morality, concentration and wisdom, the bhikkhu became ill. There appeared on his body boils that became bigger and bigger until they burst and turned into ugly ulcers. His bones decayed and gave way. His body was rotting and even his relatives and disciples ceased to look after him. This is no wonder because people usually have little patience even with their parents if they happen to be victims of chronic, incurable diseases. Seeing Tissa in this sad plight and his potential for Arahatship, the Buddha visited him. The monks nearby could no longer remain indifferent. The Buddha had the sick monk’s garment removed, washed and dried. He was bathed in warm water and redressed. Then, as the monk lay on the bed, relieved and composed, the Buddha stood at the head of the bed and uttered a verse which may be translated in prose as follows: “Tissa, before long you will be devoid of consciousness and cast off at the cemetery by your fellow-monks. Your body will lie there like a useless log.” By this verse, the Buddha reminded Tissa of the need to practise the dhamma since he had nothing else on which he could rely in his last moment. Once he became lifeless, nobody would care for his corpse. It would become rotten and loathsome in a couple of days. It would be aba¼doned at the cemetery just as people take away only good timber for making chairs, bedstead, etc., and leave the odds and ends in the forest. As he had had some training, Tissa became an Arahat on hearing the verse; and before long he passed away. The Buddha had the corpse burnt and the bones enshrined in a cetiya (pagoda). The bones left over after the cremation of a deceased Arahat are what we call his relics. Myanmar Buddhists usually believe that the relics of the Arahats are spherical objects like those of the Buddha. This is not true. Only the Buddha’s relics are somewhat like tiny balls as a result of his will. When we went to Calcutta to receive and convey the relics of the two chief disciples to Myanmar, we found them just like ordinary bones. There is no doubt that the relics of other Arahats, too, are nothing more than human bones. The popular belief that the relics of a revered saint turn up in the shape of balls after cremation is, therefore, to be taken with a grain of salt. The monks asked the Buddha about the destiny of their late co-religionist. The Buddha said that he had attained Nibbæna. They asked the Buddha why Tissa had suffered so much despite his potentiality for sainthood. According to the Buddha, Tissa was a fowler in the time of Kassapa Buddha. He killed and sold birds. As for the birds which remained unsold at the end of the day, he broke their wings and legs. Perhaps, what with nothing like cold storage in those days, there was no other way to keep the birds fresh and alive. For thus mutilating and killing the birds, he suffered for a long time in hell, and when he was reborn in the human world, he had many diseases and in his last existence his bad kamma was worked out to its bitter end. His attainment for Arahatship was in part due to his offer of food to an Arahat together with a prayer for sainthood during his life as a fowler. Those who are kind and avoid violence will be free from disease and ill-health in a future life like thera Bakula. When I was in Mawlamyaing, I met a woman whose health was simply amazing. She was in her early sixties and yet she had never taken any medicine and never had an ailment like headache or cold. The part of Mawlamyaing in which I resided was malaria-infested and I had an attack every two or three months but the woman was immune although she had lived there the whole year. Her health was most probably due to the practice of non-violence and kindliness in her previous existence. So in order to enjoy good health and freedom from disease you should lead a life of non-violence and kindliness. The abstinence from taking life is one of the five precepts and so it is familiar to Buddhists. But it needs elaboration. The Pæ¹i term for taking life is pæ¼ætipæta. Pæ¼a means a living being or life; ati means “very quickly” and pæta means to make something fall. So pæ¼ætipæta literally means to cut off a life prematurely. As in the case of non-violence, the Buddha’s discourse on abstinence from killing deals with is five aspects. Those who do not practise the Sallekha way of life leading to the elimination of defilements will not hesitate to take life. Yet such people are really afraid of death. The Buddha stresses the fact that every living being fears danger and death. This does not apply to the Arahats; and the Ariyas at the anægæmi stage but these saints are few and far between. All over the world the law of the jungle reigns supreme. Big animals kill and eat small animals for their self-preservation. This is true of both land and sea animals. As the Buddha says, in the animal world, cannibalism at the expense of the weak is the order of the day. But animals are not worse than man in this respect. For man consumes many kinds of animals including the birds in the air and even the big whales in the distant seas. To take life and preserve one’s body at the sacrifice of other living beings is indeed downright injustice. Yet, people who kill for their own survival are much afraid of death. They are more afraid of being killed by others, or of being eaten by animals such as lions, tigers or big serpents. Once a group of Americans tried to catch dragons on an Indonesian island. These dragons are bigger than man. The Americans shot them dead or set traps to catch them alive. On one occasion a dragon came rushing to attack a woman among the hunters. The woman was much scared and she had a narrow escape only because her companion shot the dragon just in time. This shows how people fear death although they kill living beings cruelly. So, in accordance with the Buddha’s teaching, we should avoid taking life, or in other words, adopt the sallekha practice that helps to lessen the defilement of killing. This is Sallekhaværa. As in the case of non-violence, we should bear in mind the other four aspects of non-killing. We should cultivate thoughts about it (cittuppædaværa), and follow the path of non-killing in order to avoid the path of killing (parikkamanaværa). Then, there is the uplifting aspect of non-killing (uparibhægaværa). Killing is an evil deed that leads to the nether worlds or to rebirth among the lower, wretched classes of human beings. Some people achieve success and wealth at the expense of other people’s lives but their achievement is short-lived. They are bound to suffer in the cycle of life. On the other hand, non-killing leads to security and happiness on the higher planes of samsæric existence. Those who avoid killing will not revert to lower worlds. Let us then make ourselves spiritually progressive through abstinence from killing. Finally, we have the aspect of non-killing that contributes to the extinction of defilements (parinibbænaværa). Abstinence from killing is moral practice and so, why is it described as superior to jhæna? According to the commentaries, the jhænas were in vogue prior to the rise of Buddhism and as such, they do not lead to higher spiritual attainments and Nibbæna. On the other hand, non-violence and non-killing received impetus from Buddhism as part of the way to full liberation. Hence, the Buddhist emphasis on Sallekha practice. In the Pæ¹i text which mentions the popular belief in the highly spiritual value of jhænas, reference is made to “some monks in this sæsanæ” i.e., Buddhist religion. This, of course, means the Buddhist bhikkhus, and it might be argued that the Buddhist yogø too, is devoid of Sallekha practice if he becomes much self-assured and smug because of jhænas. In my opinion, self-complacency resulting from jhænic attainment is incompatible with real spiritual progress. It does not square with Sallekha practice that leads to the total destruction (samuccheda pahæna) of defilement. I have already cited the cases of mahænæga and Cþ¹asumana, the two devotees of jhæna who were denied transcendental knowledge because of their self-assurance for sixty years. But for the instructions of Dhammadinnæ all their efforts and aspirations would have been futile like those of the ascetics Alæra and Udaka. So, from the Buddhist point of view, jhænic attainment per si is not to be confused with Sallekha practice. In Buddhist Sallekha training, one has to overcome evil through morality, concentration and wisdom or insight-knowledge (søla, samædhi and paññæ). We have to depend on søla for the elimination of physical and verbal defilements such as killing, stealing, lying, abusing, and so forth. As for evil thoughts we should keep them off through concentration. We can develop the power of concentration by means of kasi¼a exercises or by fixing the mind on in-and-out breathing or by being absorbed in jhæna. Concentration on breathing may last five or ten minutes, jhænic absorption may go on for a couple of hours and all unwholesome thoughts are ruled out in these states of consciousness. But the conquest of defilements through concentration is temporary. Repeated concentration on the repulsiveness of the internal organs of the human body will fill the yogø with aversion to a very good-looking man or woman but once he suspends his contemplation, he becomes attached to his sense-object. In other words, concentration provides only a temporary and not a permanent antidote against defilements. THE PERMANENT REMEDY : INSIGHT-KNOWLEDGE It is only insight-knowledge (vipassanæ)that enables us to overcome the defilements once and forever. As the yogø watches the sense-objects such as the sight sound, etc., attentively, he finds them as well as the consciousness passing away constantly. There is nothing permanent to be found. No impression of visual objects or sound is left on his mind. He is not defiled by greed or ill-will in connection with his seeing or hearing. Nor does the recollection of any event lead to defilement since the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the sense-object is not apparent at the moment of seeing or hearing and the insight into the impermanence of every object and the cognizing consciousness leaves no room for unwholesome propensities. Watchfulness is essential, for the yogø cannot overcome the defilements stemming from sense-objects that escape his attention. Constant watchfulness and the subsequent perfection of insight-knowledge lead to contact with Nibbæna on the path of the Ariyas. Such an illumination roots out the respective defilements. At the Sotæpatti stage, the ego-belief and doubt become extinct; the yogø no longer commits evil such as killing, stealing, etc., that tends to land him in the lower worlds. True, he is not yet wholly free from greed and ill-will. He still craves for pleasant objects and he still takes offence at anything that displeases him. But his greed and ill-will are not base and pernicious enough to make him kill or steal. A true Sotæpanna is wholly free from evils that lead to the lower worlds. This is then the way to conquer defilements through insight-knowledge. The Sallekha practice calls for such total conquest. Some yogøs become complacent when they are absorbed in jhæna. Concentration on in-and-out breathing or any other object often results in rigidity of the whole body and total oblivion. To the instructor and to those around the yogø, this state of consciousness may mean absorption in jhæna. But, in the absence of insight-knowledge of næma and rþpa, the distinction between them and their anicca, dukkha and anatta, such a state may indicate nothing more than deep concentration. Later on, the yogø may have serious moral lapses and betray his true character. This is because concentration by itself cannot stamp out defilements. For their total extinction we need insight-knowledge that leads to contact with Nibbæna. Total extinction of defilements is assured only when we find that we are not capable of, say, killing under any circumstances. If we are capable of killing under extenuating circumstances, it is safe to assume that our Sallekha practice is imperfect. We will now consider the constituent factors of the act of killing from the standpoint of Buddhist ethics. There are essential factors. (1) The object must be a living being. (2) There must be the awareness of it being a living being. (3) The doer must have the intent to kill. (4) There must be the effort to kill or to cause death such as striking, cutting, etc. (5) This effort must result in the destruction of life. If any one of these factors is lacking, it cannot be strictly called an act of killing. The destruction of grass or plants that are mistaken for living beings does not constitute an act of killing. It is, of course, unwholesome because it is motivated by ill-will. But it will produce no evil kammic effect worth speaking. Nor is the destruction of a living being which you mistake for an inanimate object an act of killing since there is no intent to kill. No less kammically sterile, is your act that results accidentally in the death of a living being for it is an involuntary act. For example, when a morally scrupulous man is bitten by an ant, he will have to remove it. If his act accidentally leads to the death of the insect, it has no kammic effect because it is devoid of the volition (cetanæ) to kill. Suppose the first four conditions are present but the subject fails to cause the death of his victim. It is a morally unwholesome act, its kammic gravity depending on the life quality of the victim. If the victim dies as a result of your effort, it is an act of killing, pure and simple, and you will have to pay for it according to his place in the universe. If the killer’s volition is weak, the kammic effect is little. If it is strong, the effect is great. Again, the magnitude of the kammic effect is determined by the stress and strain involved in the effort to kill as well as by the moral character of the victim. An act of killing has kammic effect not only when you yourself kill but also when you incite another person to kill. If you show by signs your desire to cause the death of a living being, that too is an act of killing on your part. This is important and should be borne in mind by housewives. It is said that at the fish stalls in the bazaar, fish are usually kept alive and battered to death only on demand by customers. Buying fish that have already been killed by fishmongers may not produce any kammic effect. But to turn your back at the sight of live fish and buy it later on, after it has been done to death, does not make you kammically less guilty. So you should be mindful when you are out shopping in the bazaar. A bhikkhu should avoid eating three kinds of meat viz., the meat of an animal that he has seen being killed expressly for his meal; the meat of an animal which, he understands, has been killed for him; and the meat that has raised doubt as to whether the flesh of the animal has been intended for him. In some villages where there are no meat-vendors, the chicken curry which a layman serves a visiting monk is suspect. Unless he can remove his suspicion, it is not proper for the monk to eat. Eating the three kinds of questionable meat is not a kammic act of killing but according to the Vinaya rules, it is bad and constitutes a clerical offence. According to the Jains, a man who eats the flesh of an animal which, he knows, has been killed for his food, will have to bear half the kammic consequence of killing. This view is not shared by Buddhism. But to eat knowing that the animal has been killed for you shows lack of compassion and may lead to further acts of killing for you. So, it is not proper for a bhikkhu to eat any meat that makes him suspect that the animal has been killed to provide food for him or for another monk or for the Sangha. It is said that the Sinhalese bhikkhus consider it improper to eat eggs. This is reasonable, for, when the eggs are to be offered as food, these have to be freshly boiled or fried for them. There is cause for misgiving even through the bhikkhu sees or hears nothing that makes him suspicious. There are eggs such as those preserved in salt or lime solution which one can eat with a clear conscience. The same is true of boiled eggs in the bazaar. Then there are unhatchable eggs which many people suppose to be lifeless. I, for one, have doubt about this view. The eggs may contain a living being that is destined to die in its embryonic state. For the kammic destiny of some living beings is indeed very strange. Some are conceived in the rocks and crushed as they are in such a narrow place, they would suffer much and one wonders what evil kamma might have consigned them to this terrible fate. Perhaps, there may be such ill-fated living things in the unhatchable eggs. We assume, however, that those who eat eggs supposing them to be lifeless are not kammically guilty because the two essential factors, viz., the sign of life and the will to cause death are lacking. Public feeding on festive occasions in some villages calls for reflection. There are no meat-sellers, and so, if people are to be served with meat, order has to be placed in advance for it. Thus, regrettably, the donor who is out to gain merit by giving alms has to bear at least in part the kammic responsibility for the slaughter of animals. It also raises the question of whether the bhikkhus should eat the meat-curry offered on such occasions. It is said that in some villages pigs are taken to the monastery to be killed on the eve of the religious feast. This is, of course, downright impropriety. Some thirty years ago, a friend of mine who was residing at a village monastery had to protest vehemently against the practice. Again, we have to consider whether it is proper for the monks to eat danbouk (specially prepared rice with meat) supplied by hotels. Such kind of food is questionable in view of the possibility of some animals having been killed specially for the festive occasion. So, the best way to ensure strict conformity with the precept against taking life is to avoid eating meat. If we are not vegetarians, we should be very careful about our food in order to keep ourselves undefiled by any act of killing. The best way to uproot the desire to kill is to watch all phenomena arising from the senses. Those who are not watchful will wish to destroy any being that offends them. But the ever watchful yogø who realizes anicca, dukkha and anatta will not see or hear the offensive object, let alone have the desire to destroy it. In the event of being bitten by an ant, the unmindful and vicious man will kill the insect instantly. The virtuous man suppresses the desire to kill and so, he will remove it. But the watchful yogø will be aware of pain, and he will note its arising and passing away. He will, therefore, have no ill-will, much less the desire to kill. If the pain is unbearable, he will attend to it but never with the desire to kill. Thus, his consciousness is invulnerable to unwholesome thoughts and he is always free from the defilement of killing. The Buddha points out the kammic effects of killing and non-killing in his reply to Subha’s question about the inequality of human beings. There are various causes of this inequality. We may explain it in terms of what we observe in regard to the influence of heredity and environmental factors such as food, etc. But even some identical twins do not have the same span of life and so observation of life does not by itself dispose of the problems of human differences. We have then to consider two explanations that have nothing to do with empirical data. One presupposes the Creator of the world while the other the law of kamma. According to the first view, the world and all human beings were created by God or what the Hindus call Brahmæ. The belief in the Creator arose long before the rise of Buddhism and it is mentioned in the Pæthika sutta of Døgha Nikæya. Those who believe in the Creator hold that the brevity or longevity of a man’s life is predetermined by his Creator. But it is difficult to answer the question, “Why do some babies die shortly after their birth?” These ill-fated babies are to be found among all people irrespective of their religion or irreligion. Notwithstanding all the best doctors and best child-care, civilized societies have still to contend with infant mortality. Many a woman with her strong maternal instinct devotes much attention to the care of her child, and yet, it does not survive for long. On the other hand, some village women have a lot of children although they do not care much for their offspring. If we are to believe that a baby dies in accordance with the will of God, why has he shortened the life of an innocent human being? Why has he caused the unhappiness of the child’s parents who have faithfully worshipped him? According to the Buddha, the man or the woman who cruelly kills another living being is liable to land in hell where he suffers for millions of years. If, after his release from hell, he is reborn as a human being, his lifetime will be comparatively short. Here, the Buddha’s discourse suggests only the possibility of the killer’s suffering in hell. But every killer is not so condemned on his death. Some killers may be reborn in the human or deva worlds by virtue of their overwhelming good deeds. For example, the high ranking army officer in Nærada Jætaka was a butcher in his previous existence. But they have to pay for their evil kamma in due course, and suffer in hell for many years. If they are reborn as human beings, they do not live long. If their kamma is not good enough to ensure rebirth in the human world, they become animals, their life span is short and they usually die a violent death. Thus, fowls and ducks are killed for human consumption and so are cattle, pigs and goats. The animals in the sea survive by eating the weak but they, in turn, are eaten up by the more powerful species. The living things with the shortest span of life are the insects that live on cultivated plants. They are usually destroyed for fear of an acute shortage of food. This brevity of life in the animal world is, from the Buddhist point of view, largely due to acts of killing in previous existences. In the human world, too, some are stillborn, some die immediately after birth and some die in their childhood or youth. Some die in accidents, some are murdered and the lives of some people are cut off by terrible diseases. All these premature deaths are due to evil kamma associated with killing. There are many stories in the commentaries to show the kammic effect of killing. One is as follows. Long ago a prince in Benares vowed to the tree-deity that when he became king, he would offer the blood of 101 kings and their queens. On his wish being fulfilled, he captured all the kings and queens and set about making preparations for the sacrifice. The queen of the youngest king was called Dhammadinnæ. She made obesience to her husband but not to the king. Then chided by the latter, she said that she paid respect only to her husband because he was her benefactor. Then she wept and laughed. When the king asked her whether she was crazy, she told the story of one of her previous lives. Long ago, in one of her past existences, she was a housewife. One day, while her husband was sleeping, some of his friends came, and she sent her slave girl to buy meat for the guests. But no meat being available, she cut off the head of an ewe at the back of her house and prepared food for them. For this evil deed, she suffered in hell-fire and because of the kammic debt that still remained, she had been beheaded as many times as there were strands of wool on the body of the ewe. She wept because she was sorry for the king who would have to suffer like her for his bloody sacrifice. She laughed because she was happy at the thought that the suffering involved in the repayment of her kammic debt was now drawing to a close. The king was shocked. He begged the captives for their forgiveness and released them. This jætaka is the story of a brahmin who offered animal sacrifice for the welfare of the dead in accordance with the Vedic instructions. Matakabhatta means offering food for the dead. It involved the ritual killing of a sheep, performance of sacrifice and feasting. For this misdeed, the brahmin became a ram for 500 life-times and got his head chopped off in every life of existence. The Myanmar saying about 500 lifetime of suffering for an evil kamma is apparently based on this jætaka. What is then the kammic cause of the grief of the parents over the loss of their short-lived child? This is not hard to understand from the Buddhist point of view. Presumably, they were the parents of a killer in a previous existence. Probably, they approved of what their son or daughter had done, and hence their unhappiness in the present life. According to the Buddha, one who avoid killing will enjoy longevity in a future life. This is what he says in Cþ¹akammavibha³ga sutta of Majjhima Nøkæya. The commentaries on Khuddakapætha and Itivuttaka also mention thirty-two benefits that accrue to those who avoid killing. Among them are beauty, longevity, health, popularity, services of a good many attendants, freedom from worry and association with one’s beloved. Those who want to be good-looking in a future life should avoid killing. The commentaries mention eight characteristics of beauty, viz., absence of deformities, well-proportioned body, shapeliness of the feet, gracefulness, softness (of the skin), purity, good features and good form. By longevity, the commentaries mean living a long life and dying naturally, that is, not to die by the hand of a murderer. Health consists in freedom from disease, and endowment with strength, and agility. Popularity means being liked by other people and speaking inoffensively. So, one who avoids killing will have an unlimited number of attendants. Freedom from worry is another kammic fruit that we can enjoy in a future existence, if we avoid killing. Everybody wants to live a carefree life and hence the popularity of books like “How to Stop Worrying and Start Living”. The best way to overcome worry is to lead a good moral life and practise the Satipa¥¥hæna meditation constantly. This way of life which the yogøs at this meditation center follow faithfully is, as the Buddha says, the only bulwark against grief and anxiety. Still another good kammic fruit is the non-separation from one’s beloved like wife, children, etc., and from one’s much prized possessions. Equally good is the kammic fruit in the form of having a good number of attendants for a long time. We should avoid killing if we wish to be assured of union with our beloved, our attendants and our property in a future life. Other kammic fruits of non-killing are courage, frankness, fearlessness and invulnerability. Thus in the commentary, we have twenty-three kammic advantages of non-killing. It is easy to see the evil kammic fruits of killing, for they are just the opposites of the benefits that have been mentioned. Thus, they are ugliness, short span of life, illness and so forth. It is now 2514 years since the Buddha attained Parinibbæna. Since the Buddha passed away at the age of 80, today is the 2594th anniversary of his birth. Prince Siddhattha, the Bodhisatta was the son of King Suddhodana and Queen Mæyæ. At 16, he married Princess Yasodharæ and spent his life amid princely luxuries. At 29, he abandoned the palace and became an ascetic in search of the Dhamma that would free him from old age, sickness and death. Old age, sickness and death are undesirable, and it is indeed a noble aspiration to dedicate oneself to the search for ways and means of conquering these evils of life. Good and wise men have been working for the welfare of humanity all through the ages as, for instance, in the field of medical research. For aeons throughout his innumerable lives, the Bodhisatta sought to work for the welfare of mankind. Of all the evils that beset human life, the worst are old age, sickness and death and he set out to find the way to the conquest of these evils. He was then 29 years old and at this age, man is usually still in the prime of life. Nowadays, some men of this age are still students, trying to get an academic degree without as yet being able to do any worthwhile job. The Bodhisatta was an ascetic at 29, having renounced his wife and all his worldly wealth. To men and women of our age, the Bodhisatta’s renunciation is awe-inspiring because it is indeed unthinkable for them. For six years, the Bodhisatta practised austerities such as suppression of breathing, starvation and so forth. But self-mortification was not the way to Enlightenment and so forth. But self-mortification was not the way to Enlightenment and so after six years, he gave it up, followed the Middle Way and became the Buddha. This is how he became the Buddha. Realizing the futility of asceticism, he broke his fast, practised in-and-out breathing and attained jhæna. Then, on the full moon day of Kason, he ate the milk food offered by Sujætæ, the wife of a cattle-owner. In the evening, he went to sit under the Bo (banyan) tree at Buddhagayæ. The place is about six miles south of Gayæ in Central India, formerly called Majjhimadesa. Under the Bo tree, the Bodhisatta spread the eight handful or grass offered by a grass-cutter. In those days, it was customary for the ascetics to prepare a place in this way for sitting or lying down. There, the Bodhisatta took his seat, having first resolved to sit cross-legged until he attained Enlightenment. Then, Mæra came to molest him. Mara did not like anyone who practised the Dhamma and achieved liberation. On the day of renunciation, Mæra had urged the Bodhisatta to return home. He had persistently followed the prince and kept an eye on his movements in order to find fault with him. He was now shocked by the determination of the prince. He did not relish the prospect of the prince becoming a Buddha, the Buddha’s preaching to men and devas and the liberation of those under his (Mæra’s) control. He could not remain indifferent to the resolution of the prince. He was somewhat like those who obstruct the followers of other religions, those who have waged religious wars in some countries. Mæra was influential in six realms of devas. So, he summoned all the devas and demons under his influence. They assumed horrible forms and they came, armed with various weapons and uttering piercing war-cries. The number of Mæra’s warriors was infinite. Mæra himself came riding a big elephant and he had a weapon in each of his countless hands. They did their utmost to frighten the Bodhisatta but it was all in vain. The Bodhisatta sat unperturbed and self-possessed. Seeing this, Mæra told the Bodhisatta to leave the place since it was his by virtue of his charitable acts and his followers supported him in an uproar that sounded like a big landslide. Then, Mæra challenged the prince to produce evidence for his good deed. There was no one nearby to support the Bodhisatta. Sakka, Brahmæ and the Næga king had deserted him on the approach of Mæra’s hosts. But the Bodhisatta was undaunted. He invoked the great earth that had borne witness to his acts of dæna when he was king Vessantaræ. The great earth then shook in many ways as if like a living being it was testifying to the Bodhisatta’s acts of dæna in his previous existence. Mæra and his followers lost self-control and fled helter-skelter in the wake of the tremendous earthquake. Because of the Bodhisatta’s perfections (pæramø), it was an extraordinary earthquake so that its tremors affected the atmosphere and caused the flight of the unearthly Mæra and his followers. Yet, there was no casualty. They just ran away out of fear. This is worthy of note for the detractors of the Buddha-dhamma are reported to have said that owing to the invocation of the Bodhisatta, the god Vasundarø caused Mæra and his host to be drowned in a flood and that this shows lack of compassion on the part of the Bodhisatta. But the story is absurd and the god Vasundarø is nowhere to be found in Theravæda literature. Again, there is another question raised by those who have knowledge. Why the Bodhisatta was so much attached to his seat? Surely, there would have been no trouble if he had given way to Mæra. But Mæra came with his army not because he wanted the seat but because he was out to obstruct the Bodhisatta in his effort to become the Buddha. Every Bodhisatta attained full Enlightenment only under the Bo tree. Had he given up his seat, he would have broken his pledge and Mæra would have triumphed over him. True, it is not the place but right effort that matters most and right effort leads to Enlightenment in any place but Mæra would have molested the Bodhisatta wherever he was, and so, the Bodhisatta achieved victory by sticking to his resolution and invoking the great earth. After defeating Mæra, the Bodhisatta entered the jhæna which he had already attained and in the early part of the night acquired the extraordinary knowledge (pubbenivæsa abhiññæ¼a) whereby he could recollect all his previous existences. He recalled his life as Setaketu deva in the Tusita deva world where he enjoyed celestial bliss for millions of years. Further back he remembered how as king Vessantaræ he developed his generosity. In this way, he recalled his former lives as far back as that of hermit Sumedhæ when he heard the prophecy about his potential Buddhahood. This knowledge of former lives is not supramundane but mundane knowledge and as such, it is accessible to non-Buddhist ascetics. Some can recall only a few former births and the maximum number of births that can be recalled is forty world-cycles. As for Buddhist disciples this knowledge means the ability to recall former existences beyond the period ranging from a few world cycles in the case of the chief disciples. As for the Buddha his range of recall was unlimited. He could recall not only his former existences but also those of other living beings. DIBBA CAKKHU OR KNOWLEDGE OF CELESTIAL-EYE In the middle night watch, i.e., between 10p.m. and 2a.m. the Buddha attained dibba cakkhu or knowledge of celestial (divine) eye. In point of fact dibba cakkhu is more powerful than the deva-eye since it can see things that are invisible to the celestial eye. Dibba cakkhu knowledge makes visible all the things that are beyond the range of the naked eye such as very small things, behind the walls, things far away, hell, deva world, Brahmæ world, and so forth. Yet this knowledge, too, is not supramundane. It can be attained by non-Buddhist yogøs but it does not suffice to make them Ariyas or Arahats. The Bodhisatta had not yet become the Buddha when he acquired this knowledge. He was still an ordinary yogø. The extraordinary feature of the deva-eye which the Bodhisatta achieved was that unlike the deva-eye of other psychic persons, it had the unlimited power of seeing the infinite universe. It is said that through very powerful telescopes modern scientists have discovered millions of solar systems; and they believe that there may be many more beyond the range of their telescopes. But everything is visible to the deva-eye of the Bodhisatta. He can see all the planets around the sun and everything on them, etc., that are invisible to the scientist with his telescope. So with his divine eye, the Bodhisatta saw how living beings were reborn according to their kamma, he saw the rebirth of those with good kamma in the higher worlds, the rebirth of those with bad kamma in the lower worlds. Such a knowledge regarding the cycle of life may be salutary and frightening indeed. Then in the last watch of the night the Bodhisatta contemplated dependent origination (paticcasamupæda). The substance of his contemplation may be stated as follows: Why this old age and death? It is because of new existence. Why this new existence? Because of kamma formations (sa¼khæra). Why this kamma formation? Because of clinging (upædæna) and so on. Clinging is due to craving (ta¼hæ) that in turn stems from feeling (vedanæ). Again feeling is conditioned by sense-contact (phassa) which arises from six senses (æyatana). The six spheres of sense have their origin in corporeality and consciousness (næma-rþpa) i.e., mind and matter, which are rooted in consciousness (viññæ¼a). Consciousness is conditioned by næma-rþpa and vice-versa. So, there is a new existence with old age, death and continual dissolution. The Bodhisatta also reflected on the dependent origination in terms of cause and effect with consciousness causing næma-rþpa, næma-rþpa causing the six senses and so forth. Thus he viewed life as a causal, conditioned process of suffering. Then he reflected on the successive cessation of the links composing the wheel of life. Without the renewal of existence there would be no old age and death. Without consciousness there would be no næma-rþpa and so forth. After thus reflecting deeply on dependent origination, the Bodhisatta turned to insight meditation (vipassanæ bhævanæ) for the attainment of æsavakkhayañæ¼a or Arahatship and supreme enlightenment. Æsavakkhayañæ¼a is so called because it leads to extinction of all biases (æsava). Vipassanæ means contemplation of the arising and passing away of all phenomena and the anicca, dukkha and anatta of the five upædænakkhandhæ, that is, the five aggregates that form the object of clinging (upædæna). People consider a man’s body permanent and identical with the body which he had as a child. They think, “It is I; this is mine.” Man clings to his physical body because of his ego-belief (It is I) and attachment (This is mine). This illusion and attachment (di¥¥hi and ta¼hæ) form the basis of all clinging. Human body is the collection of infinitesimally small particles of matter that are invisible to the naked eye. Even an eye-lash contains millions of physical units. Microscopic examination of a drop of blood will reveal five million cells. These scientific facts accord with the teaching of the Buddha. Each of the countless cells in the body again contains innumerable molecules. How can you then identify the human body with the ego? Nor can you speak of anything that is your. Moreover, physical units are in perpetual flux; since it is said that the arising and vanishing of consciousness occurs a billion times in the twinkling of an eye, we can assume that physical units arise and pass away fifty thousand million times at the same moment. Scientists say that the life of an atom lasts only one millionth part of a second. This is nearly in accord with the teaching of Buddha-dhamma which estimates the number of moments of physical disintegration in the twinkling of an eye at fifty thousand million. It is, therefore, a mistake to regard the human body as permanent, good or satisfactory when it is disintegrating so rapidly. We should practise meditation to see things as they are to gain an insight into anicca, dukkha and anatta of all matter. The mental objects of clinging are those associated with feeling, perception, formations and consciousness. For each of these khandhas there is a corresponding clinging that stems from illusion and attachment “It is I who feel. This is my feeling.” “It is I who perceive. This is my memory.” “It is I who do this. This is my intention.” “It is I who know. This is my knowledge.” and so forth. To rid yourself of clinging, you have to watch constantly all the mental phenomena at the moment of seeing, hearing, etc. As your power of concentration develops, you come to know clearly the nature of psycho-physical phenomena; later on you become aware of the ceaseless arising and passing away of phenomena. Then you realize their three outstanding marks, viz., anicca, dukkha and anatta. Such is the realization of the ordinary person. As for the Bodhisatta he had the insight knowledge that made him see internally and externally the nature of all psycho-physical phenomena in the whole universe. As he contemplates the arising-vanishing of the five khandhas, the Bodhisatta developed insight-knowledge stage by stage and attained the first stage (Sotæpanna) where he perceived Nibbæna on the path and fruition (magga and phala) level. He saw Nibbæna again at the Sakadægæmi stage and then again at the Anægæmi stage. Finally, with the extinction of all defilements and the attainment of Arahatship, he saw Nibbæna and became the omniscient Buddha. For the Buddha’s disciples, Arahatship and realization of Nibbæna mean only extinction of all defilements. They were usually not free from predispositions or habits that were once interwoven with their kilesæs. Some were Arahats without any psychic power. Some possessed only threefold knowledge, viz., knowledge that enabled them to recall former rebirths, divine-eye knowledge by which they could see all things far and near, large and small and the Arahatta knowledge that ensured complete extinction of defilements. Some were Arahats with six paranormal powers, viz., the ability to create many kinds of things, the ability to hear distant sounds, the ability to know what other people are thinking plus the threefold knowledge that we have mentioned already. Besides these six kinds of transcendental knowledge, some Arahats possessed four kinds of analytical knowledge (pa¥isambhidæñæ¼a). But still, they were not free from predispositions, nor did they know all dhammas. As for the Buddha he was free from all defilements together with predispositions. He knew all the dhammas. Besides, he had all the attributes of Buddhahood. So, according to the commentaries, prince Siddhattha became the Buddha just before dawn on the day following the full-moon of Kason. With the attainment of Arahatship, the Buddha also achieved omniscience (sabbaññutañæ¼a) which enabled him to know everything by reflecting on whatever he wished to know. The sacred books tell us how he had omniscience and other kinds of extraordinary knowledge but it is worthy to note that they make no mention of anything extraordinary about the Buddha’s physical body. The Buddha showed the extraordinary feature of his body only in the fourth week after the Enlightenment. During the first week he continued to sit under the tree, absorbed in Nibbænic peace-tranquility of Nibbæna. During the second week he stood with his unblinking eyes fixed on his seat. He spent the third week pacing to and fro in west-east direction. In the fourth week, he pondered over Abhidhamma and as he reflected on Pa¥¥hæna, he had the opportunity to exercise his intellect to its utmost. Then according to the commentary, the Buddha’s physical body gave out rays of six fold colour viz., blue, yellow, scarlet, white, orange and brilliancy. After the fourth week, the Buddha spent seven days under the Ajapæla tree, another seven days under Kyee tree near Mucalinda lake and another seven days under Linlun tree. He thus spent 21 days absorbed in phalasamæpatti (fruit of jhænic or path attainment). Fifty days after supreme enlightenment, the Buddha went to Migadavuna (deer) park near Benares and on the full moon day of wazo preached the first sermon (Dhammacakkapavattana sutta) to five disciples and devas and Brahmæs. Then, for forty-five years he wandered about the country and preached the Dhamma, and at 80 he passed away at the Malla Ingin Park near Kusinara. This account of the Buddha shows that the Buddha was a real human being who became the All-Enlightened Buddha through right effort; that there are records of the names of his father and mother, of his country, of places where he attained Enlightenment, preached the first sermon, passed away and so forth. All these facts and records from various sources form the historical background of the Buddha. Such an eminent Teacher in the history of mankind has credibility and reliability that are lacking in those whose lives are shrouded in obscurity. Their historicity is open to question. So the commentary on Døgha-nikæya says that people identified such obscure teachers with a deva or Sakka (King of devas) or Mæra or Brahmæ and that they had neither faith in these teachers nor the desire to hear their sermons because devas, too, could work miracles like them. Wise men do not give credence to any teacher of obscure origin. They dismiss him as a powerful deva or Brahmæ. As for the Buddha his birth-place, parents, etc., are well-known. King Asoka set up rock pillars to mark the historic places associated with the Buddha’s life and as for his Dhamma we know where and to whom he preached a particular sutta. Moreover, there are the Buddha’s relics that add to the historicity of the Buddha and the authenticity of his teaching. For 45 years, the Buddha wandered all over central India and proclaimed the Dhamma. On the world map, the geographical area of his ministry was small and its duration was short. So, the number of people who came into contact with the Buddha was not very large. Accordingly, the Buddha willed that after his parinibbæna his relics be fragmented in order that after seeing them people might have wholesome thoughts. True to his will, his remains broke into pieces after cremation. There was only one cetiya or stupa to enshrine the relics of Kassapa and other Buddhas who lived for thousands of years but in the case of Gotama Buddha his relics were enshrined in eight stupas. It is said that there were 84000 such stupas in the time of King Asoka. The Buddha’s relics have different sizes ranging from the size of a pea to that of a mustard seed. They have also different colours, yellow, white, etc. We can decide whether an object of popular Buddhist worship is really the Buddha’s relic on the Basis of what the commentaries may say about the colour, size, etc., of the relic. We have referred to the relics of the Buddha’s two chief disciples which are ordinary human bones like the relics of other Arahats. Stealing is one of the 44 defilements. “Other people may steal or loot what is not given by the owner. We will avoid doing so.” Thus you should practise Sallekha dhamma that helps to reduce defilements. So says Sallekha sutta. Buddhists who faithfully follow the Buddha’s teaching observe the five precepts and avoid stealing. We will now explain the second precept in detail. The immoral act in question is adinnædæna which literally means taking anything that is not given by the owner. This is, of course, stealing and stealing includes taking a person’s property surreptitiously or taking it by force. The Vinaya pi¥aka spells out 25 kinds of stealing that are to be avoided by bhikkhus. It will take us far a field to dwell on them and so we will describe mainly stealing and killing. Stealing is taking surreptitiously what belongs to another person without his knowledge while he is asleep or off his guard or absent elsewhere. To cheat a buyer by using false weights and measures, to fob off a worthless article on a buyer, to sell counterfeit gold and silver, not to pay due wages or conveyance charges or customs or taxes, etc., to refuse to repay loans of money or property or what is entrusted to one’s care and to refuse to compensate for any damage or loss for which one is responsible. All these constitute acts of stealing. Robbery is using force to obtain other people’s property. It includes intimidation and extortion of money or property, excessive and coercive taxation, unlawful confiscation of property for the settlement of debt, court litigation for illegal ownership through false witnesses and false statements. Stealing has five components. (1) A certain thing or property is in the possession of a certain person. (2) Recognition of its ownership by somebody. (3) The intent to steal or rob. (4) Commission of theft or robbery. (5) Successful removal of a certain thing or property, etc. An act will constitute theft, pure and simple, only when it involves all these ingredients. If the thing taken has no owner, it is not theft. Nor is it theft even in the case of the property of somebody if a person takes it thinking that it has no owner or that it belongs to him. But when a man knows that something he has taken belongs to another, he must return it or compensate for it. Otherwise, he has committed theft. If, without any intention of stealing, a man takes another person’s belonging because of his intimacy with the owner, it is not theft. Otherwise, it is an act of stealing. But it must be returned to the owner if he wants it. Otherwise, it is an act of stealing. As for the fourth component, one is guilty of theft or robbery whether one commits the misdeed oneself or causes another person to commit it. Again theft is committed as soon as one takes a thing and displaces it with intent to steal. He may drop it when detected by the owner but that makes no difference. In the case of a bhikkhu, if the thing in question is worth 25 pyas, he ceases once and forever to be a member of the order of the Sangha. Putting the stolen property in its original place does not absolve one of guilt. So what matters most is the word “etc” after displacement (in the last condition) which points to cases of theft that do not involve displacement. You commit theft when you decide not to pay due fees, due wages, due fares, etc., or when anyone who ought to receive money from you gives up all hope for it. If the court gives the decision in your favour in the case of property which you unfairly acquire through litigation, you commit theft. Therefore, an act is theft if it fulfils these five conditions or if it involves taking another person’s property surreptitiously or through deception or intimidation. In the Sallekha sutta, the Buddha points out the four phases of the practice of non-stealing. First, one makes the affirmation that one will avoid stealing (sallekhaværa). Secondly, one should cultivate thoughts, intentions, etc, about non-stealing (cittuppædaværa). Then one should avoid the bad path of stealing by following the good path of non-stealing (parikkamanaværa). This third phase of sallekha practice is based on avoidance or abstention. There are three kinds of abstention, viz., sampatta virati, samædæna virati and samuccheda virati. Sampatta virati is abstention from doing evil when occasion arises without any prior commitment to the observance of the moral precepts. As an example, the commentary cites the case of one Cakkana. In Ceylon, a man named Cakkana went out to catch a rabbit because a physician had recommended the rabbit flesh as food for his sick mother. Seeing him, a rabbit ran away but it got entangled with a creeper. Cakkana caught the rabbit and then he had second thoughts about killing it. He considered it improper to kill the animal for the sake of his mother. So he set it free, returned home and declared solemnly, “To my knowledge, I have never killed a living being in my life. May my mother recover from her illness because of the truth of what I say?” Then his mother instantly became well. Here, in this story, Cakkana had not undertaken to observe the precepts. So he caught the rabbit, intending to kill it. But as an afterthought he released the animal. This abstinence from killing or stealing or lying, etc., when there is an opportunity or occasion for it is termed sampatta virati. Samædæna virati is abstinence out of regard for one’s commitment to morality. Here the story of a lay Buddhist in a hilly region is a case in point. After vowing to observe the precepts in the presence of Buddharakkhita thera, he ploughed the field. As the bullock which he had unyoked after ploughing did not come back, he went up a hill to look for it. There he was caught by a boa-constrictor. He thought of cutting the reptile’s head with his knife. But he remembered the vow which he had taken before his much-revered bhikkhu. Resolving to give up his life rather than break his vow, he threw away his knife and the boa instantly let him off and slipped away. This is a case of abstinence to honour one’s commitment to morality. Samuccheda virati refers to the abstinence involved in right speech, right action, and right livelihood of the Eightfold Noble Path. From the moment this kind of abstinence is established on the Ariyan path, one has no desire to kill, steal and lie. One has no consciousness that is active enough to give rise to wrong speech, wrong action and wrong livelihood. Such abstinence of the Ariyan path helps one to do away with unwholesome tendencies once and forever. In the time of the Buddha, Kujjuttaræ, the slave-girl misappropriated four out of eight kyats that she was to spend on flowers for her mistress. One day, she heard the Buddha’s sermon and became a Sotæpanna. From that time onwards, she spent all the money on the purchase of flowers and on being questioned by her mistress Queen Sæmævatø; she did not lie but made her confession. One who practises the Sallekha dhamma as taught by the Buddha will have to observe at least the five precepts. He must always abstain from killing, etc. If possible, he must devote himself to insight meditation in order to uproot all evils by means of samuccheda–abstinence. Constant mindfulness of all phenomena arising from the six senses means abstinence from evils. This needs some explanation. Unmindfulness may give rise to the desire to kill, to steal, etc., in connection with what one sees, hears and so forth. If these desires are powerful, they may result in the actual commission of murder, theft, etc. As for the yogø who constantly watches everything that arises from the six senses, he is aware only of the consciousness and corporeality, their arising-and-passing away, neither pleasant nor unpleasant, still less something that will arouse in him the desire to kill, etc. Thus his abstinence from evil is assured. When this insight-knowledge is well advanced it leads to the knowledge on the level of the Path and then the yogø is wholly free from the desire to speak, act or earn his living wrongfully. These three kinds of abstinence mean diverting one-self from the path of stealing to that of non-stealing. NON-STEALING FOR SPIRITUAL UPLIFT Evil deeds usually lead to a lower, ignorable life, whereas good deeds are the mainspring of higher, noble life. So, the Buddha says that abstinence from stealing is conducive to our uplift. Unscrupulous men seize every opportunity to make themselves prosperous and achieve higher social status by stealing and robbing. We should, on the contrary, resolve to seek higher life by abstinence from stealing. The Buddha also teaches that non-stealing contributes to the extinction of defilements. This is the nibbænic phase (parinibbænaværa) of non-stealing. Buddhist laymen and women who observe the precept against stealing should remember that their observance is in accord with the Buddha’s teaching in Sallekha sutta; and they should improve and perfect their practice as far as possible. THE KAMMIC EFFECTS OF STEALING AND NON-STEALING The Buddha’s teaching about kammic effects of killing and non-killing in the A³guttara-nikæya is as follows: “Monks, through repeated stealing and robbing, one is liable to land in hell or in the animal world or in the world of petas. At the very least, stealing leads to damage and loss of property.” One who steals or robs suffers in hell and may be reborn as an animal. In a certain town of Myanmar an elderly man received payment for a loan of 40 Kyats but he denied having received the money and demanded the settlement of debt. He swore, “May I be a buffalo in the borrower’s house after death if I do not speak the truth.” The borrower had to pay another 40 Kyats and on his death the moneylender did become a young buffalo in the house of his former debtor. This was borne out by the animal’s responsiveness when the daughter of its owner called it by his usual name. So, many people believe that the story is credible. The robber or the thief may also become a starving and miserable peta. If by virtue of good kamma he is back in the human world, the wealth which he has amassed is highly vulnerable. On the other hand, the kammic effect of non-stealing is just the opposite; rebirth in the deva-world and on return to the human world affluence that is indestructible and enduring. These are the kammic effects of stealing and non-stealing mentioned in the Pæ¹i pi¥aka. The commentaries on Khuddakapætha and Itivuttaka point out eleven kammic advantages of non-stealing viz., affluence, abundant wealth, an unlimited supply of consumer goods, fulfillment of every desire, increase of wealth, speedy acquisition of things desired, security of wealth, freedom from the five enemies that constitute a threat to the security of wealth, undisputed possession of property, that is, possession with no one to contest it, high rank and leadership, and peace and happiness. Here, the five enemies that endanger the security of property are kings or rulers, thieves, water, fire and one’s hated offspring. When we say that the king is one of the enemies posing a threat to our economic security, we mean unscrupulous kings. Usually, law-abiding kings help to promote the economic welfare of the people. Those who avoid stealing will not in their future lives suffer from the loss of property through the action of bad kings, thieves, fire and water, nor will they have to bequeath their wealth to unworthy sons and daughters. The kammic consequences of stealing are, of course, just the opposite of those of non-stealing. These may be summed up as poverty, hunger and misery in spite of hard work, economic ruin, destruction of property by five enemies, low social status and hardship and privation in daily life. So everyone should avoid stealing for his or her uplift in status and prosperity. For the same reason, one should seek to eliminate the other forty-three evils such as killing, aggression, etc., that are mentioned in the Sallekha sutta. Moral evils are to be eliminated through commitment to moral precepts as well as through meditation. For the conquest of non-moral evils, the yogø can resort to wise reflection, meditation and knowledge on the Ariyan path level (Ariyamaggañæ¼a). Of the forty-four evils, some can be wholly done away with on the Sotæpatti level, some at Anægæmi stage while some can be stamped out only on the attainment of Arahatship. At this meditation center, the yogøs practise constant mindfulness to overcome defilements. Defilements arise from lack of mindfulness and even if they do not arise at the moment of seeing, etc., they may find an outlet in retrospections. Such defilements are called anusaya kilesæ, that is kilesæ lying dormant in us. With the development of concentration, the ever watchful yogø becomes aware of only corporeality and consciousness in perpetual flux. He has an insight into their impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and conditionality (anicca, dukkha and anatta); and this insight leaves no room for greed, ill-will and ignorance. So unwholesome desires such as the desire to kill, etc., become extinct. The yogø overcomes them whenever he is mindful of them. This is overcoming by the opposite (tada³gapahæna). When the insight-knowledge matures, the yogø attains the path of Ariyas. At the Sotæpatti stage, the ego-belief, wrong belief, doubt and all evil desires leading to the lower worlds become extinct. Later on at the Sakadægæmi stage, the yogø is assured of the complete extinction of gross evils associated with sensuous desires and ill-will. At the Anægæmi stage, he is wholly free from the subtle forms of the same unwholesome propensities while finally with the attainment of Arahatship, he is liberated from all evils rooted in the craving for existence, pride and ignorance. To achieve this liberation, the yogø must be constantly mindful in accordance with the teaching of Sallekha sutta. Some may ask what this sutta has to do with mindfulness. They need not ask this question if they understand the sutta. Every moment of mindfulness means the practice of Sallekha dhamma at its highest level. The yogø will vow to avoid all misdeeds through constant mindfulness although unmindful persons kill, steal, etc., in the wake of what they see, hear, etc. Lack of mindfulness means harbouring potentials for misdeeds and the choice of wrong path leading to killing, stealing and so forth. Every moment of mindfulness marks a step in spiritual development. Initially the yogø is a foolish worldling, ignorant of the arising-and-passing away of all psycho-physical phenomena. Mindfulness develops concentration, unusual insight and awareness of the corporeality as the known object and consciousness as the knowing subject. This is the first step. The second step is the awareness of cause and effect as the only two aspects of reality. Then there is the clear realization of anicca, dukkha and anatta and so on with other successive stages of illumination. That is what the yogøs themselves reveal to us. Among them are both men and women who have had a specially clear insight (into the nature to phenomenal existence). This morning a dullabha bhikkhu, i.e. a man who has joined the Sangha on a temporary basis told us how he adored the Buddha because of his deeper understanding of the Dhamma. Before one pactises the dhamma, one’s knowledge of the dhamma is limited and based only on tradition. Then instructions of the teachers fail to make impression and arouse interest. It is practice that enlightens the mind makes the yogø aware of the nature of reality. Some do not know what to make of the experience of the yogøs that I describe to them. They say that they do not remember what I tell them. So they do not speak well of my discourse. Of course, I might have failed to preach something that could be well understood by them. But the yogøs who have practised meditation appreciate my teaching. Other teachings fail to satisfy them fully. To them elaborate sermons with scriptural quotations, examples and analogies are not worthwhile if divorced from practice. To talk about the nature of mind-body complex or impermanence in terms of Pæ¹i texts requires detailed explanations with examples but as for the meditating yogø the distinction between næma and rþpa or the passing away of all phenomena is borne upon him at every moment of his mindfulness. So these yogøs appreciate our teaching and evaluate it on the basis of their experience. This is indeed a step in their spiritual development. Through the practice of meditation the yogøs realize anicca, dukkha, anatta, and attain various stages of insight-knowledge. Of these, that of udayabbayañæ¼a is striking. At this stage the perception is quick; the intellect is sharp; it seems as if there were nothing that could not be perceived or known. The yogø experiences illumination and intense rapture. The mind is very clear and happy. The joyful feeling is indescribable and the Buddha labels it “amanusirati” a joy that is beyond the reach of ordinary men. But it is necessary, too, to note these delightful stages of consciousness and reject them so as to attain “bha³gañæ¼a”. At that stage the known object as well as the knowing consciousness vanishes. The vision of human form with its hands, head, etc., is nowhere to be found. Everything is passing away and a deeper insight into anicca, dukkha and anatta dawns on the yogø. This is followed by successive stages of insight-knowledge, viz., bhayañæ¼a, ædønavæñæ¼a, etc., which we touched upon in a previous discourse. Later on, we come to sa³khærupekkhæñæ¼a, a very subtle, fine insight-knowledge that lasts for two or three hours and is characterized by automatic, effortless cognition and equanimity. This stage leads to anulomañæ¼a and then finally to ariyamaggaphalañæ¼a, that is, knowledge of the path and fruition on the plane of Sotæpanna. If the yogø keeps on practising mindfulness, he passes through the other two stages of Ariyas and at last he attains Arahatship, the supreme goal of the holy path. Progress on the path presupposes constant mindfulness and so one should practise mindfulness for spiritual uplift and conquest of defilements. Today is the Mahæsamaya Day which Buddhists celebrate all over the country in commemoration of the Mahæsamaya sutta which the Buddha delivered on this Full Moon of Nayon (June). First, as to the origin of the sutta. On this day 500 Sakya³ monk's practised meditation in a forest near Kapilavattu in accordance with the Buddha’s instructions and on that very day they became Arahats. The monk who became the first Arahat came to inform the Buddha of his attainment. But just as he was about to address the Buddha, he saw another monk coming and so he could not speak of his Arahatship. As the 500 monks kept on coming one after another, none of them was able to achieve the object of his visit. This was due to the fact that they had no desire to let others know of their accomplishment. A true Arahat wants to share his enlightenment with others; he is anxious to see others as Arahats, but does not want others to know his attainment and he keeps it a secret as much as possible. He does not let any non-bhikkhu have an inkling of it. He may sometimes have to reveal it when pressed by a bhikkhu. Even then he would let it be known indirectly. Once a bhikkhu who had renounced his family to don the holy robe and was attending on an Arahat asked the latter how an Arahat looked like. Of course he did not know the attainment of his preceptor. The Arahat said, “It is hard to know the Arahat. Even a monk who is serving the needs of an Arahat does not know the spiritual status of his teacher.” Thus because he had no vanity, the Arahat did not reveal his accomplishment. If they did let others into their secret, they did so on the eve of their parinibbæna. So, not wishing to let others know their Arahatship, the 500 bhikkhus did not tell the Buddha anything but sat in silence. At that time the devas and brahmæs came to pay their due respect to the Buddha and the new Arahats. It was a very big assembly. The Buddha announced the list of deities present and then preached the suttas that benefit their six types of temperaments. It is said that at the end of these discourses countless devas and brahmæs attained illumination. The subject of our talk today is chastity. According to Sallekha sutta, we should practise chastity although other people may indulge in unchastity (abrahmæcariya). People who cannot abstain from sexual acts are very great in number. The only exceptions are the bhikkhus who live up to the vinaya rules faithfully and the laymen and lay women who are committed to moral codes that insist on chastity. The majority of mankind indulge in sex. But sexual indulgence is not immoral act like killing or stealing if it does not mean unlawful sexual intercourse. Unchastity by itself cannot land a layman or laywoman in the lower worlds and so it is not a grave offence like killing. There are two kinds of unchastity, viz., unchastity that amounts to unlawful sexual intercourse and unchastity which we cannot equate with such sexual offence. Everybody should abstain from unlawful sexual intercourse. If the layman does not avoid the second kind of unchastity, i.e. legitimate sexual act, his morality as regards the five precepts remains untainted. If he can avoid it so much the better for his spiritual life. But the bhikkhu has to avoid all sexual acts completely. Any indulgence in sex means a violation to his moral life. So presumably, this passage in the sutta was primarily intended for the strictly celibate bhikkhus. But it concerns those who observe eight or ten precepts or any other moral code that emphasizes chastity. Chastity is the life-long practice of the Buddha and the Arahats. The layman who practises chastity even for a single day possesses in part the moral attribute of the Noble Ones for that day. His life is then very noble and pure. If he cannot practise it, he should resolve to abstain from unlawful sexual intercourse. KÆMESUMICCHÆCÆRA (ILLICIT SEX) Kæmesumicchæcæra is sexual misconduct. It refers to all kinds of sexual relations conducted in violation of the traditional code of sexual ethics laid down by good and wise men. There are twenty kinds of women with whom men should have no sexual relations. Briefly, they are women under the guardianship of parents and relatives, women under the guardianship of clansmen or kinsfolk, women under the protection of her fellow members of a religious order, married women, betrothed women and so forth. Men should avoid sexual contact with such women. As for a married woman, she should have no sexual relation with any man other than her husband. Men and women who engage in such illicit relations are guilty of sexual misconduct and so every-one should avoid this breach of morality. Brahmæcariya or chastity is abstinence from all sexual acts regardless of the legality or otherwise of such acts. Bhikkhus, hermits and nuns have to practise chastity for life. Laymen and laywomen are committed to it while they observe precepts of higher morality. As in the case of killing and stealing, the Buddha in Sallekha sutta says that we should practise chastity even though others may indulge in unchastity (sallekhaværa); that we should cultivate thoughts about chastity (cittuppadaværa). This resolution is meant for bhikkhus, sæma¼eras, nuns and lay Buddhists who have pledged themselves to higher moral life. The meditating yogø who observes eight precepts is committed to chastity for a number of days or months. Those who cannot practise chastity should avoid unlawful sexual acts. Like non-killing, etc., the practice of chastity means the avoidance of an evil path; it contributes to spiritual uplift and is conducive to the extinction of defilements. It is hard for those who have sexual desire to practise chastity. This is because they are blind to the evils of sexual defilements. It is, therefore, necessary to reflect on these evils. Attachment to sexual pleasure means impurity of mind. We are dominated and enslaved by sexual desire. For the sake of sexual pleasure we have to suffer, commit crimes and face penalties. We do misdeeds that lead to the lower worlds after death; we cannot free ourselves from the lower sexual life or from samsæric plane of existence. If a man leads a life of chastity, his spiritual status is high. Look at the bhikkhus. People revere the bhikkhu and offer food, etc., because of his chastity. His spiritual life will be much higher if he possesses moral integrity tranquility and wisdom. But morality in itself is a mark of a noble life and ensures the respect, adoration and generosity of lay people. Such virtuous bhikkhus are seldom in need of food, robes, dwelling and medicine. So, to those aged monks who come and ask for robes, I say, “Sir, you are in dire need of robes because of your lack of moral attribute. If you have this attribute, the laymen and laywomen will surely offer you robes. Therefore, Sir, try to live up to the moral ideal.” The Buddha himself gave the same advice in Akakamkheyya sutta, that is, that a bhikkhu should perfect his moral life if he wants to be well provided with the four necessities of life. Hence, chastity contributes to material and spiritual welfare in this life as well as to progress on the samsæric plane and towards final attainment of Nibbæna. Those who are committed to lifelong chastity should practise it strictly. We say strictly in the sense that they should avoid not only major sexual acts involving mutual agreement and intercourse between two persons but also minor sexual behaviour. In the Methuna sutta of A³guttara-nikæya the Buddha mentions seven kinds of Minor sexual acts. On one occasion a brahmin called Janussoni approached the Buddha and asked him a question. He was a learned man, well-versed in the Vedas. In those days, learned brahmins used to question, discuss and argue with the Buddha. The Hindus of modern times are the descendents of those brahmins and so Janussoni might be called a Hindu pa¼ðit. He asked the Buddha, “Does Gotama claim to be a holy man who practises chastity?” He asked this question because he considered the Buddha unqualified to be called a brahmacærø (one who practises chastity). According to the practice of chastity prescribed in their sacred books, a brahmin remained unmarried and devoted himself to the study of Vedas until he was 48 years old. At 48, some brahmins begged for alms with which they repaid the debt of gratitude to their teachers and then they became ascetics. Some went to the house of brahmins who had daughters of marriageable age. They asked for marriage to such girls for the perpetuation of their families in exchange for the merits which they had acquired through the practice of chastity for 48 years. The brahmins who wished to acquire merit without any effort gladly gave away their daughters with ceremony. It would be hard for Buddhists to understand such an offering but this is not surprising in view of the occasional reports that we hear in Myanmar of daughters being offered to a charlatan who posed as a member of the royal family. Brahmins offered their daughters because of their faith in Vedas while some Myanmar gave away their daughters under certain delusions. What some people do may seem absurd in our eyes but it is born of their hopes and convictions. With the birth of a child, the brahmin considered himself to have fulfilled the function of procreation and some became ascetics while some continued to live the life of a householder. Janussoni believed that only those who, like these brahmins, were pledged chastity for 48 years should call themselves the holy brahmacæra, a title which, he contended, must be denied to the Buddha who, as prince, had enjoyed married life for 13 year. The Buddha replied that he indeed was a true brahmacærø. Then, he pointed out the seven minor sexual acts that tend to blemish and degrade chastity. These are as follows: (1) Some so-called sama¼as and brahma¼as claim to be brahmacærø by merely abstaining from sexual intercourse with women. Yet, they welcome and enjoy being fondled, massaged, bathed, cleansed and powdered by women. Such indulgence is the cause of degradation of chastity. The chastity of these persons is not pure. It does not contribute to their spiritual liberation. This is the first minor sexual act. Among the Buddhist Sangha too, some elderly monks are reported to have allowed themselves to be massaged by women. This practice will surely cast a slur on their chastity. Delight in contact with females and any effort to that end lay a bhikkhu open to the charge of Sa³ghædisesæ offence. (2) Joking and talking merrily with women. There is no physical contact but the act involves joking, teasing and kidding. If the talk refers to obscenities, the bhikkhu concerned is also guilty of Sa³ghædisesæ offence. (3) Staring at a woman with pleasure. (4) The woman is not visible because of the walls, partitions or curtains but her voice is audible. The ascetic or the brahmin is pleased to hear the woman laughing, crying, talking or singing. This way of seeking pleasure is nowadays more widespread than before. The songs of women over the radio can be heard everywhere. To enjoy hearing these songs is to indulge in Minor sexual pleasure. (5) Retrospective pleasure over the pleasant time which one spent formerly with women. This concerns especially those who take to ascetic life after having indulged in worldly pleasure in their youth. (6) Envying the rich who are given to the pursuit of sexual pleasure. Such an envy cannot but lead to the degradation of chastity. This sexual act is subtle. These minor sexual acts from No. 1 to No. 6 are concerned with the present life. (7) The last minor sexual act is the desire to be reborn in the deva-world by virtue of one’s morality and chastity. This means the desire for sensual pleasure in the company of angels in the next existence and as such it does not differ basically from the desire of the monk who looks forward to having a good time when he leaves the order. So the craving for the pleasure of the celestial abodes is described as a sexual act by the Buddha. In fact, the object of the bhikkhu in joining the Sangha is to achieve not heavenly bliss but liberation from the cycle of rebirth. These seven minor sexual acts may be committed by the bhikku as well as by the Buddhist laymen who observe the eight precepts. Furthermore, everything that we have said about the defilement of male chastity applies equally to females. Of the seven minor sexual acts, it is the first two that largely lead to moral breakdown. The other five acts by themselves are not so destructive though they tend to defile morality. So the bhikkhu should, if possible, avoid all the seven acts. It may not be possible for non-meditating people to free themselves wholly from the desire for heavenly pleasure. Even among the meditators the desire may lurk in those whose object is only to avoid rebirth in the lower worlds. But the meditating yogø makes a mental note of all thoughts and desires about minor sexual acts and overcome them. This is no more difficult for them than it is for a sick man who has medicines to cure his disease. They also discard all unwholesome thoughts about sex through firm resolution. Non-followers of the Buddha who practise chastity did not consider it necessary to avoid minor sexual acts; nor did they know how to exercise mindfulness and reflect to that end. Hence, those who practised chastity for 48 years in the Brahmanical tradition were not free from minor sexual acts. Their married life after 48 years of chastity also made them sexually impure. The Buddha brought home these facts to the brahmin Janussoni and added that he claimed to be the all-Enlightened Buddha only after he had completely overcome the seven minor sexual acts. Much impressed by this teaching, Janussoni became the disciple of the Buddha. It was not only the Buddha but the Arahats also had nothing to do with Minor sexual acts. Even at the Anægæmi stage, the Ariya is free from attachment to the world of form and formless world. At the first two stages of holiness, too, the bhikkhu is usually free from sexual acts. It is also necessary for lay Buddhists to avoid them when they are meditating or observing the precepts. In this way, they can enhance their chastity and make it immaculately pure. I have referred to Minor sexual behaviour for the sake of those who set their heart on higher chastity. As for ordinary chastity that most people understand by the word “brahmacariya”, its purity is not affected so long as one avoids sexual intercourse. The lay Buddhists who cannot keep themselves chaste should avoid illicit sex. Those who commit sexual excesses have to pay dearly for them in their future existences. According to the Buddha’s teaching in A³guttara-nikæya; they are liable to land in the nether worlds. And when they are reborn as human beings they tend to have many enemies. The kammic rewards of those who avoid unlawful sexual intercourse are just the opposite. After their death they will reach celestial abodes, and on their reversion to the human world, they will have no enemies but many good friends. The commentaries on Khuddakapætha and Itivuttaka mention twenty kammic effects of chastity. Of course, eight are specially worthy of note. The kammic rewards are (1) Having no enemies, (2) Being in no danger of rebirth in the lower worlds, (3) Being in no danger from any quarter, (4) Being able to do anything openly without any fear, (5) Being able to speak fearlessly, “straight from the shoulder”, (6) Being able to speak without hanging one’s head, (7) Being loved by other people, (8) Happy married life, (9) Abundance of consumer goods, (10) Having all the sense-organs such as eyes, ears, etc., (11) Possession of the essential attributes of the male and the female, (12) Not being a eunuch, (13) No change of sex, (14) Having no occasion to part with one’s beloved, (15) Being able to sleep soundly, (16) Having no worry about food, clothing, etc., (17) Being not short-tempered, (18) Having no fear or shyness. These are the kammic benefits accruing to those who avoid unlawful sexual intercourse while observing the five precepts or who practise chastity while observing the eight precepts. Needless to say, the same benefits accrue, too, from the lifelong chastity of bhikkhus. The following is a story illustrative of such benefits. During the time of Kassapa Buddha, seven bhikkhus noticed moral corruption among some of their fellow monks, and being monks of high integrity, decided to live in solitude. They went up to the top of a hill by means of a ladder and pushed away the ladder as they were bent on practising the Dhamma at the sacrifice of their lives. In due course, the eldest bhikkhu became an Arahat with psychic powers. He went about for alms and on his return; he invited the other monks to eat the food that he had collected. But the six monks declined the offer as they believed that eating would make them less afraid of death and so became less energetic in their spiritual effort. The next day, the eldest of the six bhikkhus attained anægæmi stage together with psychic powers. He, too, offered food to the remaining five bhikkhus but they refused to eat and continued practising the Dhamma. They lacked, however, the capacity for spiritual development and at last all of them died of thirst and starvation. It may be said that these monks lost their lives prematurely because of their excessive energy. But if we consider their case objectively, it was not a loss but a great gain for them. Without practising chastity, they might have lived for twenty thousand years but they would not have gained much after their death. Now by virtue of their serious practice of chastity, they were reborn in the deva-world. There they spent, not a couple of life times, but a long period from the time to Kassapa Buddha until the time of Gotama Buddha when all of them attained Arahatship. The first three Arahats were Dabba, Kumærakassapa and Bahiyadæruciriya. The third was the wandering ascetic Sabyiya who asked the Buddha some questions and became an Arahat. the last was king Pukkusæti who attained Anægæmi stage after hearing the Dhætuvibha³ga sutta. Then before long, he died, landed in Suddhavæsa Brahmæ world and became an Arahat. Their repeated enjoyment of heavenly bliss and their final attainment of Arahatship were due to their practice of chastity as monks. Thus, although they died of starvation in the time of Kassapa Buddha, it was a great gain for them. In the time of Kassapa Buddha there was a king called Kiki who attended to the physical needs of the Buddha. He had seven daughters named Samanø, Sama¼aguttæ, Bhikkhunø, Bhikkhudayikæ, Dhammæ, Sudhammæ and Sanghadayika. These names indicate the king’s high regard for the Buddha’s teaching. Indeed the seven princesses adored the Dhamma very much. They wished to join the Sangha and asked for the father’s permission. The king did not agree and so instead of getting married, they practised chastity for 20,000 years. As the king’s daughters, they grew up in the tender care of their royal maids and attendants. They had no need to worry about food, clothing, etc. Because they were unmarried, they led a carefree life. They spent their time serving the physical needs of the Buddha. Although they lived for 20,000 years they did not get bored and never thought of marriage but practised celibacy happily. Because of their virtues they enjoyed heavenly bliss many times. When they were reborn in the human world, they lived in affluence and finally in the time of Gotama Buddha they had illuminating experiences. Of the seven daughters Samanø, the eldest became an Arahat and one of the Buddha’s chief disciples. Khemæ was at first the chief queen of Bimbisæra, the king of Magadha. When the Buddha came to the city of Ræjagaha, accompanied by one thousand Arahats, the former ascetics of Uruvela forest who had been converted to the Dhamma, he was welcomed by the king with a gathering of 12,000 people. The Buddha delivered a suitable discourse and on hearing it, the king and most of his followers attained sotapænna. The next day, the king offered food to the Buddha and the Sangha and donated his Veluvana garden for their residence. The Buddha spent the second, third, fourth, seventeenth and twentieth vassas (period of rain retreat) in the Veluvana vihæra and at other times, too, he stayed there in the course of his wanderings. While the Buddha was there the king availed himself of every opportunity to see the Buddha and hear his sermons. However, his chief queen Khemæ did not care to see the Buddha. For she was very beautiful and much of her time was spent in making herself beautiful. She had heard that the Buddha often spoke in contempt of physical beauty and so, she was afraid and reluctant to see the Teacher. But having savoured the Dhamma, the king wanted to share it with her. But since the king was five years younger than the Buddha, the queen was probably still in her early thirties and what with her narcissustic vanity, she had no desire to hear the Dhamma. So the king hit upon a plan to bring about the Queen’s encounter with the Buddha. He had songs composed by poets and sung by minstrels, songs which paid a glowing tribute to the splendour of the Veluvana garden. The poets did their best to paint a fine literary picture of the garden. Their songs extolled the attractions of the garden, depicted its resemblance to the Nandavana of the deva-world, the visits of the devas to the garden, their wonder and infatuation, the residence of the Buddha that added to the splendour of the garden and so forth. The songs were in Pæ¹i stanzas and they might have moved the listeners deeply if they had been recited by a singer gifted with a good voice and fluent delivery. These songs were also sung by ladies of the court. On hearing them, the queen became eager to visit the garden. In point of fact, there was no doubt about the splendour of the garden. Formerly, it was delightful just to enjoy the sight of its flowers and trees. Now, it was graced with the glory of the Buddha, with his preaching, of the Dhamma, with the meditating yogøs and with the bhikkhus absorbed in jhæna. No wonder that the devas took delight in visiting it and never tired of seeing the Buddha and hearing his discourses. Queen Khemæ then asked the king for permission to visit the garden. The king gladly gave his consent but stipulated that she should see the Buddha. In order to avoid meeting the Buddha, the queen went there while the Buddha was going the usual round for collecting food. She was much enraptured with the beauty of the garden. Wandering here and there, she saw a young monk in deep meditation under a tree. She wondered why the young man had dedicated himself to a holy life which was, so she thought, meant only for old people who were given to the pursuit of sensuous pleasure in their youth. When she was about to return to the palace, the ministers who had accompanied her reminded her of the kings’ instruction and under their pressure she had to proceed to Gandhaku¥i, the residence of the Buddha. She hoped that the Buddha was not yet back from his morning round in the city but the confrontation which she feared so much was inevitable. As she entered the main hall, she saw an extremely beautiful girl fanning and paying respect to the Buddha. In reality the girl was a creation of the Buddha. The queen was much surprised because she thought it was a real girl. She had never seen such a beauty before, a girl so beautiful that compared with hers, the queen’s beauty paled into insignificance. What she saw removed her misapprehension that the Buddha looked down upon beautiful women. It was also a shattering blow to her pride and vanity. As queen Khemæ gazed at the girl, the Buddha, by exercising his supernormal powers, made the latter grow old right under the eyes of the queen. The girl aged ceaselessly until she became an old woman of ninety with her hair turning grey, her teeth broken, her skin shrivelled and her bones protruding. Then the old woman lost her balance, collapsed, and was moaning and panting for breath. At this sight the queen was deeply shocked. She became aware of the impurity and loathsomeness of the human body and the human ignorance that made people attached to their bodies. Then the Buddha spoke to the queen. He told her to reflect on her body. The body is the object of attachment for ignorant people despite its evil smell, its impurities, its putrid matter and its susceptibility to painful diseases. “So, O Queen! You should fix your mind on the repulsiveness of the body. Be sick of it. That woman’s body was as graceful as yours before its disintegration. But now it is repulsive and so will be your body in due course. Therefore, you should avoid attachment to your body as well as to the body of any other person. You should contemplate the signless impermanence of everything.” The signless impermanence of everything usually escapes the notice of those who, being unmindful of the mind-body complex at the moment of its arising, and living without reflection and wisdom, believe that a man’s physical body is the same as it was in his childhood. To them the mind is also a permanent entity and to some people mind and body are the aspects of the same enduring self. Thus, it is a human tendency to see falsely the sign of permanency. This illusion is shared even by those who can describe body, mind and its elements analytically but who have not introspected themselves rightfully. But the yogøs who practise constant mindfulness have no visions of hand, feet, heads, etc., when they develop concentration. They see only the momentary dissolution of everything subjectively and objectively. And so they clearly realize for themselves the impermanence of the phenomenal world. The Buddha urged the queen to contemplate this nature of things that are devoid of any sign of permanence, for it was her ignorance of it that lay at the root of her inordinate conceit. “So, O Queen! Through insight into impermanence, you should overcome the root of conceit; through overcoming conceit, you will live in peace.” “Just as a spider wanders ceaselessly in its web, so also through attachments of their own making, people ceaselessly wander from one existence to another and cannot detach themselves from the wheel of life. Those who renounce the sensuous pleasures and practise the Dhamma can overcome attachment and liberate themselves from samsæra.” The commentaries say that after hearing the Buddha’s sermon, Khemæ attained Arahatship. According to Apadæna, she obtained the Eye of the Dhamma after hearing the gæthæs (verses) and according to Mahænidana sutta; she attained Arahatship after practising the Dhamma as a bhikkhunø for a month and a half. The Eye of the Dhamma (Dhammacakkhu) may here mean sotæpattimaggañæ¼a or anægæmimaggañæ¼a. The commentary on Therøgæthæ takes it in the former sense. In view of her renunciation of the household life, it is safe to assume that even if she did not immediately become an Arahat, she attained Anægæmi stage that freed her from all sensuous desires. In any case with the consent of the king, she joined the Sangha and was known as Khemæ therø. Because she was unmatched among the bhikkhunøs (order of female bhikkhus) in respect of her intelligence and knowledge, she was honoured by the Buddha with etadagga in paññæ (wisdom). The Story Of Therø Uppalava¤¤a Sama¼aguttæ, the second daughter of king Kiki became the daughter of a merchant of Sævatthø city in the time of the Buddha. She was named Uppalava¼¼a because the colour of her skin was like that of a lotus-flower. To cut the long story short, she was so beautiful that the kings and merchants all over India sought her hand for matrimony. Because of so many suitors, the merchant was at a loss what to do with his only daughter. So he asked her whether she would like to join the holy order. What with her spiritual potential carried over from her last existence, she agreed and was formally ordained at the monastery. Before long, she became an Arahat possessing psychic-powers. The third daughter of king Kiki, called Bhikkhunø was Padæcæri therø in the time of Gotama Buddha. Her story is enacted on the stage and well-known to many people. Having lost her parents, husband and children, she became insane and while wandering aimlessly she came to Jetavana vihæra where the Buddha was preaching. There she was cured of her temporary insanity and after hearing the Buddha’s sermon she became a Sotæpanna. She joined the holy order and finally attained Arahatship. She ranked as the chief female disciple in regard to the knowledge of Vinaya. The fourth daughter, Bhikkhudayikæ became the daughter of a merchant in Ræjagaha. She was called Baddæ. Taking a fancy to a condemned robber, she ransomed him and became his wife. One day the robber took her to the top of a hill under the pretext of paying homage to the devas. There he relieved her of all the jewellery and decided to kill her. The woman asked for permission to pay him her last respect, deceived him with her amorous gestures and pushed him into the chasm below. Then being afraid to return to the home of her parents, she sought refuge in the abode of wandering ascetics (paribbæjakas). On the occasion of her initiation into their order, each of her hair was plucked one by one and so she might have suffered more than ten thousand times at that time. The new growth of hair was circular in the shape of an ear-ring and hence her name Kundalakesæ. She studied all the doctrines of the ascetics and wandered about the country, challenging any teacher she met to an ideological disputation with her. Then one day she was defeated by Særiputta, she became his disciple and after hearing the Buddha’s discourse, attained Arahatship. The Pæ¹i book Apadæna mentions her liberation following the attainment of Dhammacakkhu (Eye of Dhamma) and her subsequent ordination. She was the foremost female Arahat in respect of Khippabhiññæ¼a. Dhammæ, the fifth daughter became the daughter of a poor man in Sævatthø city. Because of the poverty of her parents, she was despised by the relatives of her husband. They showed affection only when she bore a child. Unfortunately the child died and the mother was almost beside herself with grief. Clasping the dead child, she went about the town in search of medicine that would restore the life of her son. On the advice of a wise man she sought the help of the Buddha who told her to bring a mustard seed from a house where nobody had died. She went about looking for such a house but, of course, it was in vain. People were taken aback by her inquiry and said, “Why, you foolish girl! So many deaths have occurred in our house that we cannot keep count of them.” This kind of reply in three houses brought about her disillusionment. She realized that there was no house that had never known of death, that her child was not the only human being who had died, that all living things are mortal. So, she left her dead child at the cemetery and uttered these words. “Death is not confined to a village or a city. It concerns not only a clan or a family, but it is the destiny of all living beings whether human or devas, who are governed by the law of impermanence.” It may be asked whether it would have been possible for a poor girl to compose such a stanza with its flawless rhythm and grammar. Since the commentaries ascribe it to Kisægotamø, perhaps she might have expressed her thought in plain prose which the Buddha turned into verse. According to Apadæna, this verse as well as another verse was uttered by the Buddha. On hearing it, Kisægotamø became Sotæpanna. She joined the Sangha, practised the Dhamma and before long attained Arahatship. She was the chief among the female bhikkhunøs who donned coarse robes. Sudhammæ, the sixth daughter of king Kiki became Dhammadinnæ, the wife of Visækhæ, a rich merchant. Visækhæ attained the first stage of the holy Path together with king Bimbisæra when he heard the Buddha’s sermon on the occasion of the latter’s first visit to Ræjagaha. Later on he attained Anægæmi stage. At this stage the yogø is free from attachment to sensual objects. He has no craving for good visual objects, good sound, good smell or good bodily contact. So on that day Visækhæ came home, calm and composed. Dhammadinnæ looked out of the window. On other days both of them would smile when they saw each other but now she saw him coming with a grave expression on his face. She came out to greet him but he entered the house quietly instead of going hand-in-hand with her as on other days. Nor did he speak to her during meal time. He ate his meal silently, thereby making her more worried about his strange behaviour. At night he slept alone instead of sleeping with his wife as usual. She was now much alarmed. She wondered whether he was in love with another woman, or whether someone had made him hate her or whether she had done anything that offended him. She said nothing for two days but on the third day, she could restrain herself no longer and asked him bluntly what was the matter with him. Visækhæ thought, “The spiritual experience is something which one should not reveal to others. But I cannot evade her question. If I do not answer her, she will die of a broken-heart.” Then he said to her, “My sister, I have had some transcendent experience after hearing the discourse of the Buddha. One who has had this Anægæmi experience is neither capable nor desirous of indulging in the kind of relation that formerly existed between you and me. So you can do what you like with all the wealth that we have. Regard me as your brother. I will be content with the food that you provide. If you do not want to live here, you can return to your parents with all your wealth. If you wish to remain here instead of getting married again, I will regard you as my sister and look after you.” Being a woman of high intelligence, Dhammadinnæ reflected thus: “An ordinary man would not have told me like this. He certainly might have had transcendent experience. it would be good for me to have it, too.” She would have come to grief if she had thought otherwise and said to herself, “Why should I care for him if he does not care for me any longer? I can easily get another husband.” A woman of high intellectual stature, she was much impressed by what he said and wished to share his experience. So she asked him if the experience was accessible to women. On being told that the Dhamma made no distinction between men and women, she expressed her desire to become a bhikkhunø. Visækhæ was much pleased and sent her to a bhikkhunø vihæra on a golden palanquin. Soon after her ordination she attained Arahatship. To the very profound questions posed by the merchant Visækhæ, bhikkhunø Dhammadinnæ gave clear-cut answers. The dialogue between Visækhæ and Dhammadinnæ was canonized as Cþ¹avedalla sutta of Majjhimanikæya. Her exposition of some points of the Dhamma was so illuminating that the Buddha conferred on her the title of the chief female disciple in respect of preaching. Sanghadayikæ, the seventh daughter of king Kiki was Visækhæ, the lady who donated Pubbaræma vihæra to the Sangha. She had been a Sotæpanna since the time when at the age of seven, she heard the Buddha’s sermon along with her 500 girlfriends on the occasion of the Teacher’s visit to the town of Bhaddiya. Later she moved to Sæketa with her parents at the invitation of king Pasenadø. When she came of age. she married the son of the merchant Migæra and lived in Sævatthi. She donated the Pubbaræma vihæra to the Sangha, served them gruel and morning meals every day at home, provided juice and medicine at the vihæra and heard their sermons. Of the seven daughters of king Kiki who practised chastity, the first six became Arahats and attained Nibbæna. The last daughter, that is, Visækhæ in the time of Gotama Buddha did not attain the higher path of holiness. She died as a Sotæpanna and is now the queen of the deva-king Sunimmita in Nimmænarati, the fifth world of devas. She will attain anægæmi stage there, pass through the five Suddhævæsa realms successively and attain Nibbæna in Akani¥¥ha realm as an Arahat. So Visækhæ is now the chief queen in the realm of Nimmænaratø. The life-span there is 8000 which means 2304 million years on earth. Perhaps, it would be boring to enjoy heavenly bliss for so long. When she dies as an Anægæmi, she will pass on to the lowest of the five Suddhævæsa realms, i.e. Avihæ realm where she will become a Brahmæ. The Brahmæ is neither man nor woman but takes on the appearance of a majestic male. The Brahmæ is free from all sensuous desires. The life-span there is 1000 kappas (world-cycles). From there she will go to Atappa, the second Suddhævæsa realm. After 2000 kappas there, she will pass on to Sudassana, the third Suddhævæsa realm where she will live for 40000 kappas. Then she will live another 4000 kappas in the fourth suddhævæsa, viz., Sudassø realm. After spending 16000 kappa-years there, she will reach Akani¥¥ha, the highest Suddhævæsa realm where she will attain Nibbæna after a life-span of 16000 kappas. All these life spans and up to 31000 kappas. That means Visækhæ will be in the Brahmæ world for 31000 kappas before she attains Nibbæna. We assume this post-mortem destiny of Visækhæ on the authority of the commentary on Sakkapanæ sutta of Døghanikæya. There it is said that Sakka, the king of devas will have Akani¥¥hæ as his last abode. True, no mention is made of his Arahatship or attainment of Nibbæna there. But existence in Akani¥¥ha rules out the possibility of rebirth or passage to other realms and so it means attainment of Arahatship and Nibbæna there. This is the destiny, too, of the yogøs at the first three stages of the holy path who have come to Vehapphala and Nevæsaññænæsaññæyatana realms. The same commentary says that this is the destiny which Sakka has in common with Anæthapindika and Visækhæ. Some Sotæpannas love worldly pleasures or the kammic fruits of their good deeds. They long for worldly bliss, they take delight in it and they are repeatedly drawn to it. Anæthapindika, Visækhæ, Cþ¹arathadeva, Mahærathadeva, Anekava¼¼adeva, Sakka and Nægadattadeva – it is said that these seven persons were fond of worldly pleasures and that they will pass through the six heavenly abodes successively, reside in Akani¥¥hæ abode and attain Nibbæna there. It will not be proper to take literally the statement in the commentary about the successive enjoyment of sensual pleasure in six celestial abodes. Perhaps, it means the Anægæmi stage in one or two of the abodes and subsequent passage to Avihæ abode. For that is the destiny of Sakkæ as stated in Sakkæpana sutta. A Sotæpanna like Visækhæ is not a Sotæpanna with seven rebirths at the utmost (sattakkhatuparæma) nor a Sotæpanna passing from one noble family to another (kolamkola). He is also not the one “germinating only once more” (ekabiji). He or she is called Bonzinzan in Myanmar because he or she will enjoy all the heavenly bliss in one abode after another. A Bonzinzan is so called because according to commentaries on Saµyutta nikæya and Puggalapaññatti, he or she will pass through all the lower celestial abodes as well as the five higher ones successively. Dhammasa³ganø, the first book of Abhidhamma pi¥aka describes the four stages of the holy path as the four abodes (bhþmi). The Ariyas who pass through all these abodes may also be labelled Bonzinzan. This label for such Ariyas is more apt because the gradual attainment of the Ariya differs from the destiny of the Sotæpanna with seven rebirths. The Sotæpanna is reborn seven times and after passing through the three higher stages of the holy path, attains Arahatship. This is the destiny too of the other two types of Sotæpanna, viz., kolamkola and ekabiji. But if by abode (bhþmi) we understand the four stages of holiness, the Sotæpanna attains Anægæmi stage in one of the celestial realms, passes on to the five Suddhævæsa realms and attains Nibbæna in Akani¥¥hæ realm. He is more aptly called Bonzinzan because of his progressive attainment of the three higher stages or abode of Ariyas. These are the stories illustrating the kammic fruits of chastity practised by men and women. They tell us how chastity leads to material and spiritual progress – how the man or woman who is pledged to chastity enjoys heavenly bliss in succession, how from deva-realms, he or she passes on the Suddhævæsa or Brahmæ realms or how, starting from the ordinary state of a worldling, the successive attainment of the holy stages together with the supreme goal of Arahatship or Nibbæna is possible for the yogø. Therefore, you should vow to practise chastity for spiritual uplift and for the lessening or extinction of defilements. Those who can observe only the five precepts should vow to avoid all kinds of unlawful sexual intercourse. “Other people may speak falsehood; but as disciples of the Buddha, we will avoid it. Thus, we should commit ourselves to a practice that lessens defilements.” This is the teaching of the Buddha. Here ‘musæ’ is falsehood and ‘væda’ means speaking; hence ‘musævæda’ is speaking falsehood or telling lies. You tell a lie if you deny seeing or knowing a thing when in fact you see or know it; or if you say you see or know a thing when in fact you do not see or know it. There are four constituent factors of lying, viz., (1) what one says does not accord with reality, (2) the intent to deceive other people, (3) describing falsehood as truth and (4) the statement is accepted as truth by another person who hears it. Making a statement that comprises these four conditions is a kammically effective act of lying. If the act is detrimental to the interests of other people, it may lead to the nether worlds. The kammic gravity or otherwise of lying is determined by the moral and spiritual status of the victim of deception. The higher the spiritual plane of the victim, the more serious is the offence. If the victim is devoid of moral character, lying is not serious. But it is a serious offence if it endangers the interests of another person. The more harmful the offence, the more serious it is. Lying which does not cause harm to others is not kammically grave. According to the commentaries, it does not lead to the lower planes of existence. But a good man completely avoids lying. He will avoid even making a joke based on falsehood. If someone comes and asks you for a loan of something belonging to you do not wish to lend it to him, what will you say? If you say that you do not have the thing when in fact you have it, you will be lying. But it is not a serious offence since it is not detrimental to other person. Of course, even as a minor offence, lying should be avoided. If you say frankly that you do not wish to lend anything you will incur the displeasure of the borrower. Townspeople probably know how to give an evasive reply. Perhaps, it would be advisable to tell him that we have just enough for personal needs, that we do not have enough to lend or spare. We should thus avoid lying even in trivial matters. A man who speaks the truth is trusted and held in high esteem by other people. Importance Of Truthfulness In Giving Evidence Respect for truth is of paramount importance in the settlement of a dispute. In a trial court or in any other place a witness under interrogation should testify truthfully. Some witnesses tell lies and so if a judge disposes of a case on the basis of their false evidence, they are guilty of a very grave offence. A false testimony may lead to imprisonment, or execution of an accused in a murder case or to fine and imprisonment in other criminal cases. It means a great misfortune for the innocent person. The judge who passes the sentence is also not free from guilt. In a court of law judgment is based on the evidence abduced rather than on a judge’s personal knowledge which is considered irrelevant. The settlement of ecclesiastical disputes in the Buddhist Sangha, too, rests on the statements of witnesses. So truthfulness on the part of a witness is of utmost importance. A false testimony in a civil dispute makes it difficult for the judge to decide rightfully, and a wrong decision may cause much damage to the rightful owner or claimant, and the presiding authority is not free from responsibility. When examined as a witness, one should speak the truth in regard to what one has seen, heard or found or what one knows. The witness must be truthful too when he has to testify about what he has not seen, heard or found or what he does not know. These eight kinds of right speech are called Ariya speech because these are the words of Ariyas, the Noble Ones. The falsehoods uttered by those in regard to what they have seen or not seen, heard or not heard, found or not found and what they know or do not know are Anariya utterances which mean the words of evil persons. So you should avoid the eight kinds of lying practised by evil-doers and devote yourself to eight kinds of right speech practised by the Noble Ones (Ariya vohæra). Then you should cultivate thoughts about abstention from lying (cittuppædaværa). You should avoid lying through truthfulness. You should resolve to speak the truth for spiritual uplift and for overcoming the defilement of lying (parikkamanaværa, etc). The Pæ¹i term for truth is saccæ, a term that is well-established in Myanmar language. To speak saccæ means to avoid telling lies that leads to the lower worlds. It means progressive attainment of heavenly abode, the Brahmæ worlds, the four stages of holiness, viz., Sotæpanna, etc., and the ultimate goal of Nibbæna, the complete extinction of all suffering. According to the Buddha’s teaching in A³guttaranikæya, the liar is liable to land in the lower worlds and if, after release there from, he is reborn as a human being, he is likely to face false charges. The kammic results of abstention from lying are of course just the opposite. A person who avoids lying is likely to pass on the deva worlds and on his return to the human world, he will not be subjected to malignant accusations but will be trusted by the public. The commentaries on Khuddakapætha and Itivuttaka mention fourteen kammic results of speaking the truth. These are: – (1) having a mouth that is fragrant like a lotus flower, (2) having a set of white, beautiful teeth. (3) having the power of speech that attracts the attention of other people, (4) having the power of speech that is persuasive, (5) having a personality that delights other people, (6) having clear faculties, (7) having a mind composed and free from distractions, (8) having no vanity, (9) having a reddish, soft and thin tongue, (10) having a well proportioned body that is not too fat, (11) a body that is not too thin, (12) a body that is not too short, (13) a body that is not too tall, (14) having the habit of speaking clearly and sweetly. A fragrant mouth, a set of beautiful teeth, the ability to influence others by word of mouth – these are the attributes which everyone wants to possess. So are clear faculties, a mind composed and so forth. A well-proportioned body is desired by every person. It will not do to have a body that is excessively fat or lean. Nor will it do to be abnormally tall or short in stature. Equally important is the ability to speak clearly and sweetly. What we want to say may be fine but if we cannot speak well, it will not be acceptable to others. A speech marked by circumlocution and confusion will fall on deaf ears. Some speakers are sincere and what they say is worthy of attention but the way they speak is so aggressive that it jars on the ears of their listeners. Some are good speakers. Their speeches are clear, precise, orderly and pleasant; as a result they appeal to many people and contribute of the attainment of their object. These then are the kammic benefits of truthfulness. Their opposites are, of course, the kammic effects of lying. The evil smell coming out of the mouth of some persons may be due to their habit of lying in their previous lives. The same may be said of the discordant and disunited teeth of some people and so forth. Moreover, truthfulness is beneficial not only after death but also in the present life. It is said that solemn utterance of truth enables one to walk on water. In the time of the Buddha, king Mahækappina set out with his one thousand followers to become bhikkhus. On the way they crossed three large rivers after uttering the truth about the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. It is said that even the hoofs of their horses did not get wet. This story illustrating the power of truth may sound like a myth to modern people. But we should consider the story rationally. Today, we see planes flying in the air, space ships are circumnavigating the earth and astronauts have landed on the moon. If these marvels of our age had been predicted in the lifetime of the Buddha, the people in those days would have dismissed them as myths. In reality, the story of men walking on water is not preposterous if we take into account the possibility that the scientific achievements of modern age might have been paralled by the psychic-powers of the yogøs in ancient times. Affirmation that something is true can also help to remove poison. This is borne out by the Ka¼hadipaya jætaka. While visiting the house of his lay follower Manadavya, the hermit Ka¼hadipaya found the man’s son lying unconscious as a result of snake-bite. The householder appealed to him for help. The hermit said that as he did not know medical treatment, he must rely on affirmation of truth for therapy. And so he declared solemnly. “I was happy as a hermit only for the first seven days. After that, for fifty years I have lived the holy life unhappily. Yet, in order that nobody may know of my unhappiness, I have never deviated from the holy path. Because of this true statement, may the child be cleared of poison and restored to life!” Then the upper part of the child’s body was purged of poison and opening his eyes the child cried, “Mama, Papa” and fell asleep again. The father then declared as follows: “I do not like giving alms or performing any act of dæna. I do not want to see those who ask for alms. Yet I have been giving alms regularly without letting the recipients know my antipathy to dæna. May the child rid himself of poison and survive by virtue of this affirmation of truth!” The poison above the waist of the child’s body was now neutralized and the child got up and sat. Then, the householder told his wife to affirm the truth of something she knew. The woman said that she dared not do so in his presence but under pressure from her husband she uttered the following words: “Dear child, I do not love your father any more than I love the snake which has bitten you. May this affirmation of truth make you free from poison and restored to life!” Then the child became wholly free from poison. After the child’s recovery, his parents and the hermit admonished one another and the merchant gave alms joyfully and whole-heartedly; his wife treated him affectionately; and the hermit practised the Dhamma with a zest that finally led to the attainment of jhæna and psychic-powers. This story may sound incredible to scientists. But it will not be scoffed at by some people in Myanmar who have seen victims of snake-bite cured through mere recitation of gæthæs and mantras. The cure of disease through the affirmation of a true statement is mentioned in Visuddhimagga. About four hundred years after the parinibbæna of the Buddha, there was in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) a bhikkhu called Mahæmitta. The bhikkhu’s mother was afflicted with a disease that appeared to be breast cancer. She sent her daughter who was a bhikkhunø to her son for medicine. Bhikkhu Mahæmitta said. “Since I have no knowledge of conventional medicine, I will give you the medicine of truth. Since my ordination I have never looked at a woman with lust. May my mother regain her health by virtue of my affirmation of truth! Now, sister, go back to my mother, repeat what I say and rub her body.” The bhikkhunø did as she was told and her mother was instantly cured of the disease. The story may be ridiculed by modern medical doctors who have seen diseases cured only through medication. They know that germs cause diseases and it is hard for them to believe that there is no need for medicines to get rid of germs. But affirmation of truth is certainly one of the methods of treatment for diseases. It is a kind of spiritual healing. At our meditation centre there are many yogøs who have recovered from illness through mindfulness of their unpleasant feelings. Some patients consulted doctors who recommended a surgical operation. In order to fortify themselves on the operating table they came to our centre and practised meditation. In the course of their practice their power of concentration developed and their diseases subsided automatically. They again consulted the doctor; the doctor examined them, found no symptom of the disease and was surprised to learn that it was meditation that brought about the cure. There is a variety of diseases that have been so cured such as gastric troubles, abdominal pains, hypertension, headache. A yogø who had been deaf for many years was able to hear again and there is a case of the cure of sinusitis of twenty years’ duration. Mahækassapa and Mahæmoggalæna recovered from illness after hearing the Bojjha³ga sutta. As for the Buddha he overcame by meditation an affliction that was so severe as to threaten his life. It is, therefore, reasonable to believe that there are remedies other than medicines for some diseases. The affirmation of something that is true can also cause the rain to fall. This is evident in the parittæ to the fish who was a Bodhisatta. Here the cure of poisoning and other afflictions and rain-making through the affirmation of truth are to be effected only by those who avoid lying. The potency of truth will become manifest only when they affirm something that is true concerning their private lives. In connection with the abstinence from telling lies, king Sutasoma’s faithfulness to his principles is very interesting and a brief account of this king is in order. To distinguish him from his namesake in the jætakas, the commentaries refer to him as Mahæsutasoma. But here we will call him Sutasoma. Porisæda in the story of king Sutasoma is well-known to many Buddhists. Some have the Porisæda figure tatooed on their bodies. Originally, he was king Brahmadatta of Benares in the kingdom of Kæsi. As he had been an ogre in many of his previous lives, he was very fond of meat and never had meatless meals. By an large, people today are also fond of meat. All over the world those who avoid meat are few and far between. Only the high caste Hindus of India are well-known as the community of non-meat eaters. There are only a few vegetarians in other countries. Doctors recommend meat as a nourishing food and of course their advice fits in with mankind’s partiality for meat. The king of Benares scorned meatless meal and so the royal cook had to serve him meat every day. Then one day no meat was available as the slaughter of animals was forbidden on that day. Fearing punishment the cook went to the cemetery, cut off a piece of flesh from a fresh corpse and after cooking it served the human meat to the king. In ancient India it was customary to send a dead body to the cemetery immediately after death. The king found the human meat very delicious and he asked the cook what kind of meat it was. Rasaka, the cook dared not say anything but when threatened with death, he was forced to reveal the truth. Then the king ordered him to serve human meat every day. Rasaka killed the condemned prisoners in the jail to get meat for the king. When there was no condemned prisoner left in the jail, the cook killed one man every night. At last the king’s cannibalism was found out and he was banished by the chief of the army and the citizens. The king left the country and with his cook he took up abode under a big banyan tree in the forest. He killed travellers coming along the jungle path and lived on human meat prepared by his cook. So he was called Porisæda, (pori = human flesh, sæda=eater), the cannibal. One day Porisæda came back empty handed. He told the cook to put the pot on fire. The cook asked him about meat but he said, “Oh! Don’t bother. We will get it.” Rasaka was quite frightened. Trembling with fear that his turn had come, he made a fire and put the pot on it. Then Porisæda killed and cooked him for his meal. So we have the saying that when nothing was available, Rasaka was expendable. After that Porisæda was left alone. He pounced on the travellers passing through the forest and prepared his meals. One day a brahmin who travelled with many escorts fell into his hands. With the escorts chasing him relentlessly, he jumped over a hedge and got his foot pierced by a sharp edge of a wood stump. Thus seriously injured, he abandoned his captive and lay down under the banyan tree. He besought the tree-god to help him heal his wound and promised to offer the blood-sacrifice of 101 kings if his prayer was fulfilled. We learnt something about the propitiation of nats (nature spirits) when we were young. A village woman would, for example, appeal to the nats for the recovery of her sick child, promising to do something in return for their help. In fact, nats cannot cure a disease but owing to their ignorance, women in rural areas rely on nats in accordance with their age-old beliefs. Perhaps, because he was deprived of food, Porisæda’s would quickly healed up in a week. He attributed the healing to the tree-god’s will and true to his pledge, he captured one hundred kings within a week, tied them with a cord and kept them together at the foot of the banyan tree. India or Jambudøpa as it is called in the sacred books is between two and three thousand miles wide from east to west and north to south. He would have made one hundred trips, each trip covering such a long distance. As he is said to have spent only a week for the capture of the kings, it must have taken him only 168 working hours which means on the average of two hour-round trip for each king. Thus, it must have been impossible for him to capture the kings from all over India. Most probably his captives were only rulers of local city states. One of the kings not included among the captives was Sutasoma. As he was once under the tutelage of Sutasoma, Porisæda thought it inadvisable to capture his former master and so he proceeded to make a blood-sacrifice of the other kings in captivity. But the tree-god knew that he had nothing to do with the cure of Porisæda’s foot sore and he did not relish the prospect of the blood-sacrifice that would make his tree dirty and involve the senseless slaughter of the kings. So, on the advice of his superior gods he made himself visible to Porisæda and insisted on the capture of the famous king Sutasoma. Then Porisæda set about to fulfil the wish of the tree-god. The next day was for king Sutasoma an auspicious day on which he would have a ceremonial washing of his head. Before the king’s security guards arrived, Porisæda hid himself under a lotus leaf in the pond of the royal garden. The royal garden and its environs swarmed with regiments of war-elephants, infantry, cavalry, and so forth. At the appointed hour the king came riding an elephant with a large retinue of troops. At the city gate he saw Nanda, the brahmin standing on an elevated spot and blessing him. On inquiry, the king learnt that the brahmin had come to preach four gæthæs (stanzas) on Dhamma each worth 100 pieces of money. The king instructed his ministers to arrange suitable accommodation for the brahmin and saying that he would hear the sermon on his return, proceeded to the garden. There he had his hair and beard trimmed, bathed in the pond and then he was presented with a new robe and other regalia pertaining to royalty. At this moment Porisæda decided to capture the king; for the king’s body would be heavy if he had to carry it with the robe and other royal emblems. So brandishing his sword and shouting his name in a loud, piercing voice, he jumped out of the pond. As soon as they heard the name “Porisæda”, the royal guards fled helter-skelter. It is said that even the soldiers on elephants tumbled down. It was an age of heroes. A hero could then strike terror into the heart of his enemy and he was more than a match for a host of soldiers. Today heroism counts for little, for, it is weapons, intelligence and manpower on which victory depends. But in ancient times nobody possessed any superior weapon and the warrior who had strength and courage was much feared. So Porisæda put the soldiers to flight and ran off with the king on his shoulder. He ran fast bur slowed his speed when he saw no one pursuing him. He carried Sutasoma on his shoulder instead of dragging him by his feet as he had done to other kings, for Sutasoma was his former master. As Sutasoma had just finished bathing when he was kidnapped, water-drops from his hair fell on to Porisæda’s body. Porisæda thought it was tear drops and said, “Sir, wise men usually do not weep. Are you afraid of death? Or are you worried about your family?” The king replied, “Porisæda, I am not crying. The water drops on your body are dripping from my hair. I do not fear death nor do I bother about my family. But there is one thing that is worrying me. When I came to the garden, I made an appointment with a brahmin called Nanda. I am anxious to keep my promise. So if you let me go back, I give you my word that I will come back to you after seeing the brahmin.” Porisæda said, “Sir, I do not believe that a man who escapes death will dare return and face it again. It is unthinkable that you would come back to your enemy after living happily in the place with your family and attendants. Nor would it be possible for me to capture you again in the face of troops that will be guarding you.” King Sutasoma replied, “Porisæda, you once lived with me for a long time when I was your master. I do not tell a lie under any circumstances. If, in spite of my pledge, you do not trust me, I will take an oath. May I die by my own sword or spear if I do not come back to you!” Porisæda thought, “Kings do not swear by swords or spears. Terrible indeed is the oath this man has taken. Maybe he is really concerned over the breach of his promise to the brahmin.” Then Porisæda released the king telling him to come back without fail after he had attended to his business. After his return to the palace, arrangements were quickly made for the sermon of the brahmin Nanda. The four stanzas that formed the subjects of the brahmin’s discourse are worthy of note. Originally they were preached by the Kassapa Buddha. Taking a seat that was lower than that of the brahmin, Sutasoma heard the sermon. The first stanza says: “O King! Companionship with the wise even on a single occasion is beneficial. Companionship with the unwise even on many occasions is not beneficial.” A wise man avoid doing anything that is detrimental to his or another man’s interest. He thinks, speaks and acts only for his good or for the good of others. He promotes the welfare of the person with whom he associates only for a short time. But a bad man who thinks, speaks and acts against his or other person’s interest is harmful even when you come into contact with him many times. The second stanza: “One should keep company only with the wise. One should seek their advice.” We should live with the wise. If we live with them, we get accustomed to their way of life and tend to emulate their good behaviour. But we should seek something more than the company of a wise man. We must look up to him as our teacher and follow his advice. The stanza which king Sutasoma learnt from the brahmin Nanda was originally taught by Kassapa Buddha. The brahmin came by it as it was preached by successive generations of non-Buddhist teachers. Today, there are some verses of the Buddha which pass for the original teachings of Brahmanism although they were incorporated into their scriptures by ancient brahmins. These verses will remain part and parcel of their sacred books even after the extinction of Buddhism. Ennobling Influence Of Parents “When one knows the teaching of the wise men, one is more ennobled than ever; it does not do him any harm.” A person is morally and spiritually advanced in direct proportion to his knowledge of the wise men’s teachings. Buddhists acquire knowledge of the real Buddha from their wise parents and teachers. Knowledge of an attribute of the Buddha means a step forward in moral character. For example, according to Arahan, an attribute which denotes freedom from defilements, we know that the Buddha was free from unwholesome desire, ill-will and ignorance. This knowledge helps us to revere the memory of the Buddha and enhances our spiritual outlook. So does our knowledge of the fact that the Buddha knew all the dhammas, that there was nothing unknown to him. Again, we know that the practice of the Buddha’s teaching prevents one from landing in the lower worlds, that it contributes to the attainment of prosperity on earth, celestial bliss or Nibbænic peace, that the Dhamma can be realized for oneself, that one gets instant benefit from its practice. Such a knowledge of the Dhamma means nobility of character. The same is true of our knowledge about the Sangha. The Sangha is dedicated to morality, samædhi and wisdom for the conquest of greed, hatred and ignorance and so reverence for the Sangha is beneficial in terms of longevity, health, etc. This knowledge about the Sangha will certainly enhance our moral stature. Ennobling Power Of The Wise Man’s Dhamma Initially, children know little about the Buddha, the Sangha and the Dhamma. They have no moral standard to speak of. When they grow up and become a little intelligent, wise parents teach them to revere the Sangha and the memory of the Buddha and impress on them the benefits resulting from such reverence. They teach the children the Refuge formula (“I take refuge in the Buddha” etc.). Thus as a formally established Buddhist, the child is free from rebirth in the lower worlds. Then the child is taught the solemn undertaking in regard to the five moral precepts and their application to daily life. It is up to parents to teach the child the essentials of Buddhism and if they are not equal to the task, they should entrust him to the care of a good teacher. Good parents teach the child the recitation of only texts and formulas. Thus, thanks to the intelligence and wisdom of parents, children are assured of spiritual heritage that contributes to their moral development. Conformity To The Buddha’s Teaching When a boy grows up, he gives alms and observes the precepts, thereby ennobling his character. He hears the sermon on mind-training that conforms to the Buddha’s teaching, meditates rightfully and so enhances his moral stature. Here we should be mindful of the need for conformity to the Buddha-dhamma and correct approach to meditation. There are teachers whose doctrines do not accord with the Dhamma as well as yogøs who practise meditation in the wrong way. These people misunderstand and disparage the true teaching, thereby degrading themselves spiritually. Even the effort to develop concentration (samatha bhævanæ) in accordance with the Buddha’s teaching is noble. Some tend to belittle the practice of concentration. But this is due to their ignorance for in reality samatha bhævanæ which leads to the attainment of jhæna is beneficial to the yogø. It is most beneficial if the jhæna forms the basis for insight meditation (vipassanæ). This is the excellent way of the Buddha and his chief disciples. So the practice of samatha is noble but more noble is the practice of vipassanæ. Purity And Insight-Knowledge (Vipassanæ) Yogøs who meditated at this centre did not at first know thoroughly the method of meditation. Some were wholly ignorant of it. They became familiar with it as well as with the development of vipassanæ through old yogø friends, books and sermons. This means, of course, an advance in their spiritual outlook. Indeed, we may take for granted such an advance at every stage in the development of vipassanæñæ¼a. These stages are concentration and tranquility through mindfulness or purity of mind (cittavisuddhi). The yogø finds only corporeality as the object of mindfulness and consciousness as the subject (di¥¥hivisuddhi); then he finds causal connection between them (ka³khævitaranavisuddhi); a stage which the Visuddhimagga describes as that of a Cþ¹asotæpanna who will not usually be reborn in the lower worlds; then the yogø is aware of the arising-and-vanishing together with the nature of anicca, dukkha and anatta (udayabbayañæ¼a); a stage that is marked by illumination, rapture, joy, etc; then the yogø finds that the watched object as well as the watching consciousness dissolves in pairs at every moment of mindfulness (bha³gañæ¼a); he experiences fear at every moment (bhayañæ¼a); then awareness of evil (ædønavæñæ¼a); then disgust (nibbidæñæ¼a); then the desire to detach oneself (muñcitukamyatæñæ¼a); then re-examination and special knowledge (pa¥isa³khæñæ¼a); then equanimity in regard to pleasant and unpleasant object (sa³khærupekkhæñæ¼a). The yogø is then very close to the goal. Before long he has specially sharp insight-knowledge leading to the extinction of mind-body complex formations (rþpa-næma sa³khæra), that is, realization of Nibbæna through the four paths (maggas) and four fruitions (phalas.) This is the apex of spiritual development. Thus every successive stage in the development of insight-knowledge marks a further advance in spiritual life. Royal Chariots Subject To Old Age The third stanza says: “The royal chariots which are so exquisite and splendid became old.” In ancient times the chariots which the kings as heads of states rode were very beautiful and majestic. They were, of course, not like modern motor vehicles. Motor cars have been in vogue only for a century and prior to their appearance there were only horse-drawn coaches. They were so gorgeous and splendid that a new coach might have fascinated many people. But in spite of its magnificence, a coach used by a king became old in the time of his successors and it was worn out and almost unserviceable by the time of his grandson. Some kings reigned for 50 or 60 years. Among such kings even the coaches used in the early years of the reign became old after 15 or 20 years. The same is true of royal coaches today. The latest model of a car may be an object of admiration but it is bound to become out of fashion after 25 or 30 years. It becomes ugly and obsolete as against a new model. It is said that officials and rich people have to buy new cars since their sons and daughters scorn old cars. New houses and brick buildings are fine but they become old within 50 or 60 years. Ræjagaha and Sævatthi were magnificent Indian cities in the lifetime of the Buddha but today their sites are covered with bushes and jungles without any remains of human dwellings. The ancient glorious cities of Pagan and Ava are now small villages. Like the royal coaches majestic buildings also become old and fall into decay. The Human Body Too Becomes Old The human body too is subject to old age and decay. This is, of course, the experience of elderly people over 60 or 70 years old. Every elderly man who reflects on his body has to face the fact that age is telling on him. With a few exceptions grey hair, decayed teeth and other signs of senility, such as flabby muscles shrivelled skin, wrinkled face, etc., too are apparent. A bundle of skin and bones, an old man is indeed far from good-looking. Some have poor eye-sight, some are hard of hearing and some have become weak and feeble. Thus disfigured and incapacitated by old age, the body of an old man presents a sharp contrast to what it was 40 years ago. It was then like the body of a teenager. The teenager possesses comeliness and he is constantly attentive to his personal appearance. But the old man is no longer in the physical condition of his former days. He has undergone changes and so will the young men and women of today. Young people should reflect on old age which they will have to face one day instead of dismissing such thoughts in bad taste. The human body is bound to become old in due course since it is composed of matter that is subject to the ageing process. At the moment of conception life begins with the fluid which is called kalala in Buddhist books. This Buddhist view of the origin of a human being does not differ essentially from the account given by Western medical scientists. According to them, the human being is born of the combination of the ovum (fertilized egg) and sperm. The fluid develops into a foam which in turn becomes a lump of flesh or an embryo. The embryo has five protrusions which later become head, hands and legs. Its head is big and its body is small. In due course there develops differentiation of eyes, ears, nose and other organs of the body together with sexual characters. So the embryo develops and after nine or ten months the child is born. Thanks to the nursing and care of its parents, it grows up and the childhood lasts till the age of twelve or thirteen. The pre-teenager is still a child but compared with the infant, he has aged physically. The teenager is youthful and good-looking and he may be able to keep up his physical appearance up to his early thirties. From then on he is subject to the disruptive effect of the ageing process. Some do not show signs of old age until they are over forty but by and large, old age clearly tells on us in our early fifties and its signs are unmistakable in those over sixty. So we should reflect on the inevitability of old age and look for something reliable in anticipation of it. And those who are already old should seek the Dhamma that will ensure freedom from old age. The brahmin refers to this Dhamma in the next verse: “The Dhamma of the wise is ageless. This is what the wise talk about among themselves.” This ageless Dhamma is the Dhamma of the wise men, not the ordinary wise men but the sages whom we recognize as the Buddhas, the Arahats and other Ariyas or the Noble Ones. Their ageless Dhamma is Nibbæna. When one realizes Nibbæna on the plane of the Arahatta path and fruition, one is assured of freedom from rebirth which means of course freedom from old age, sickness and death. The brahmin’s verse refers only to agelessness because in the example of the royal chariot, its old age and decay are well-known to many people. Through rebirth after rebirth living beings have aged, become sick and died innumerable times and therefore, we should seek the Dhamma of agelessness, painlessness and deathlessness. The Bodhisatta searched for it for aeons of world-cycles and in his last existence he renounced all his wealth and pleasures and became an ascetic to achieve his ultimate object. Then, 2559 years ago the Bodhisatta realized Nibbæna, the extinction of all suffering. Those who practised the Dhamma have attained Nibbæna. The yogøs at this meditation centre have set their heart on it and they will realize it for themselves with the full development of knowledge attendant on concentration (samædhiñæ¼a). In this connection, the quest for enlightenment on the part of Upatissa and Kolita (who were later to become Særiputta and Moggallæna respectively) is highly interesting. They had been intimate friends since their childhood. One day while they were seeing a pwe (a dramatic performance) a thought occurred to them: “All these spectators at the pwe will be no longer alive after 100 years. By then all of them will have aged, sickened and died. So it is advisable for us to seek the Dhamma that will help us to do away with old age, sickness and death.” So thinking, they became ascetics and went about in search of this supreme Dhamma all over India. But the object of their quest was nowhere to be found. Finally they met bhikkhu Assaji. After hearing one verse uttered by the bhikkhu, Upatissa became a sotæpanna and so did Kolita when he heard it from his friend. Then they went to the Buddha and received ordination. Moggallæna became an Arahat in seven days and Særiputta in fifteen days. The two chief disciples passed away before the parinibbæna of the Buddha. This is an inspiring example of persons in search of the Dhamma that leads to the extinction of old age, sickness and death. It shows also how, as the brahmin’s gæthæ says, we can benefit immensely by a single meeting with a wise man who can teach the true Dhamma. The Dhamma of the wise, that is, Nibbæna is ageless and permanent. The Arahat who realizes it fully is free from old age, sickness and death after his parinibbæna. The fourth stanza says: “O King! The sky is far away from earth and so is the earth from the sky.” The sky is what we call the space above the earth. But it is not the space that extends to a few feet or yards above the earth but the space that is beyond the range of visibility above us. In ancient times there were various speculations about the sky. Some people said that like a big bowl, the sky had an arched roof with the stars hanging like lamps. Some believed that God first created the earth and the sky. In fact the sky is a dark space without any solid matter that is visible to the human eye. At night we see the shining stars while in the day time we find the sun in the sky. The sky is far away from the earth. The other two objects which are far apart are the shores of the ocean. For example, the shore of Ceylon is beyond our visible horizon; there is an immense distance between the two shores of Ceylon and Myanmar. “But O King! The two objects that are farther apart than the sky and the earth or the opposite shores of the ocean are the teachings of the Wise and the Unwise.” The teachings of the Wise and the Unwise are poles apart. The teachings of the former are wholesome dhammas while those of the latter are unwholesome dhammas. The Sallekha sutta describes offensiveness, killing and other misdeeds numbering forty-four as the unwholesome dhammas of the Unwise, and inoffensiveness, non-killing and other good deeds totalling forty-four as the wholesome dhammas of the Wise. The dhammas or the norms of the ignorant are base but the degree of baseness is not the same for all their norms. Some misdeeds such as killing, stealing, etc., are extremely base but ordinary moral weaknesses such as sloth and restlessness are not so bad. All good deeds are noble but those leading to the attainment of the holy path and its fruition are more noble. Such more noble deeds are the practice of dæna, søla, bhævanæ and the practice of mindfulness for the sole purpose of overcoming all biases (unwholesome predispositions) and of a attaining Nibbæna. Still more noble is the attainment of the four stages of the holy path. Therefore, evil men of ordinary type will do base deeds of ordinary type while extremely evil men will do extremely base deeds. Evil men are interested only in evil deeds to which they are accustomed. They do not take interest in anything that is free from evil. In the same way wise men are interested only in good deeds. They are absolutely against anything evil. Thus the Wise and the Unwise are poles apart in regard to their tastes and inclinations. Furthermore, an evil deed is harmful and degrading whereas a good deed is beneficial and ennobling, and thus these two different kinds of deeds are diametrically opposite. King Sutasoma was very much pleased with the brahmin’s sermon on the four verses and he offered one thousand pieces of money for each verse as honorarium which was ten times what the brahmin used to get else-where. He also gave the brahmin a small vehicle. Then, he paid his last respect to his parents and said that he would go back to the jungle in accordance with the promise he had made to Porisæda. His parents as well as his ministers told him not to go back, saying that they would catch the great robber with their troops. The courtiers wept and implored him not to go back. King Sutasoma said, “The good and wise men make it a practice to keep their promise. Porisæda trusts me and so he permitted me to come back here. It is because of his permission that true to my word to the brahmin, I have had the opportunity to hear his sermon. So I must thank Porisæda and as a mark of gratitude to him I must return. If I do not return to him, it will be a breach of promise and it will mean lying.” After thus explaining his attitude, he went back to Porisæda. Some people make a promise sincerely but they cannot keep it because circumstances prevent their doing so but it is only a breach of promise and not an act of lying. It is an act of lying as well as a breach of promise only if you break a promise which you have made insincerely. Porisæda was making a fire and sharpening the stakes preparatory to performing blood sacrifice when Sutasoma came back to him. The king said fearlessly that as he had heard the sermon and completed all what he should have done, he was now ready to offer himself for the sacrifice or for the cannibal’s feast. Porisæda was much impressed by the king’s fearlessness. He attributed it to the brahmin’s sermon and he wished to hear the sermon that might also inspire him with courage. So he requested the king to preach the four gæthæs to him. The king replied that it would serve no purpose to teach a lawless, unscrupulous cannibal like Porisæda. The king’s reply was harsh and humiliating because he wanted to put Porisæda to shame and bring him to his senses. His words made the cannibal more anxious to hear the sermon. He said that after hearing the sermon he would be able to distinguish between good and evil, and that he could aspire to the higher things in life. King Sutasoma considered it as the right time for Porisæda to hear the sermon. So he imparted the four gæthæs. Although Porisæda was a barbarian as a kammic result of his habits in his previous existence, he was intelligent enough to appreciate the king’s teaching. As he listened to the sermon, he was filled with intense joy and admiration. He wished to offer some honorarium for the sermon and so he told Sutasoma to ask for something other than gold and silver for each of the four gæthæs. The king ridiculed Porisæda wondering and speaking aloud as to what kind of gift he could expect from an scoundrel who did not know what was good for himself. Porisæda replied that he would fulfil the king’s wish even at the sacrifice of his life. Then, the king expressed his first wish. “Dear Porisæda, friendship between two virtuous persons or between two wise persons is good. I wish to see you healthy and free from disease for one hundred years.” This statement was apparently meant for the good of Porisæda but in reality it implied the king’s wish that he be not killed. For, would he not have the opportunity to see Porisæda alive for 100 years only if he was not killed? This is typical of the exemplary sayings of the Wise that serve one’s interest while at the same time Porisæda was pleased when he learnt that the man whom he intended to kill had no ill-will against him and was even interested in his welfare. He was, of course, only too glad to fulfil the kings’ wish. The second and third request of king Sutasoma were also granted. The second request was not to kill the kings in captivity and the third request was to send them back to their countries. As his last request king Sutasoma told Porisæda to give up the taking of human flesh. Porisæda rejected this request, saying that he had even left his country because he was so fond of the human flesh. He craved so much for human flesh that he had left his country and lived in the forest. But the king insisted that his request be granted. Porisæda was in a quandary. For he had agreed to grant any request even at the sacrifice of his life. Moreover, it was a tradition among ancient monarchs not to refuse a request if they had given their word of honour. On the other hand, it was very hard for him to give up cannibalism. Obviously, he liked human flesh very much as was borne out by his renunciation of sovereignty and family in preference to a life of hardship in the jungle. This is not surprising to us if we consider it on the basis of our observation. Most people today are fond of meat and they would not welcome any suggestion to give up meat-eating. Neither would most people among this congregation. The suggestion would be more embarrassing to some monks than to lay Buddhists for we understand that they are rather reluctant to accept strictly vegetarian meals. Some monks are said to have deprecated vegetarianism as a practice advocated by Devadatta. Some contend that eating only vegetables makes no difference because to take delight in doing so means craving. This is true. Eating without due reflection or mindfulness tends to produce craving regardless of the kind of food one takes. But the nature of craving is not the same and this is evidenced by the inability of many people to avoid eating meat. Some do not like meals that lack chicken, pork, mutton and so forth, a fact that points to their excessive attachment to meat. No wonder then that it was very hard for Porisæda to give up eating human flesh. He wept and implored the king to make an alternative request. But the king was adamant and in the end Porisæda had to promise to give up cannibalism. His act of renunciation was exemplary and inspiring. If Porisæda, the very notorious robber could avoid human flesh which he relished, there is no reason why we should not avoid evil deeds. Porisæda followed the advice of Sutasoma who was only a Bodhisatta, so why should we not follow the advice of the Buddha? Thus inspired by the example of Porisæda we should try to avoid evil and do good. His last wish having been thus granted, king Sutasoma had Porisæda committed to the five precepts; and after all the captive kings were set free, he made arrangements for their repatriation to their respective countries. First, he urged Porisæda to return to his country. The latter did not wish to go back. He said that he would not be alive without eating human flesh. Instead he would rather remain in the jungle, subsisting on fruits and roots. But finally Sutasoma won him over and he left the forest together with the king. According to the commentary on Satipa¥¥hæ³a sutta, the place where Porisæda’s conversion took place was the same as that where the sutta was delivered. Delhi is said to have been the old site of Indapatta city of Kuru state, and so most probably Porisæda might have been converted at a place somewhere in the township of Delhi. From his city of Indapatta, king Sutasoma went to Benares with his nobles, courtiers and troops and Porisæda. The chief commander of the army who had sent Porisæda to exile refused to welcome him and Sutasoma had to do his utmost to persuade the commander and get the ex-cannibal reinstated. Then, after he had had other kings repatriated to their respective countries, he returned to his country. During the life time of the Buddha, Porisæda was A³gulimæla thera, the army commander was Særiputta, the brahmin was thera Kassapa and Sutasoma was the Buddha. All of them have attained parinibbæna. The moral of the story is King Sutasoma’s firm commitment to his word of honour. He managed to hear the sermon of the brahmin on his return from the garden as he had promised to do so. After hearing the sermon, he returned to Porisæda, thereby risking his life to keep his promise. These acts of heroism are worthy of emulation. Let us, therefore, affirm that while others may lie, we will avoid lying. We will practise non-lying that will lessen defilements; we will cultivate thoughts for it. We will be truthful and avoid lying for our uplift. Pisu¼avæcæ means slandering. We commit pisu¼avæcæ when we speak ill of someone in order to cause discord, hatred and enmity among people where harmony, good-will and friendliness prevail. The Pæ¹i term pisu¼avæcæ literally means a speech that is destructive of love between two persons. To disparage a person behind his back is also pisu¼avæcæ for it tends to discredit him in the eyes of the hearers. The Buddha’s characterization of the slanderer is one who creates discord between two persons or two parties by gossiping. His gossips tend to destroy unity and inflame those who are already at loggerheads with one another. He wants to see others disunited and takes delight in their split. Therefore, his words lead to discord and disunity. There are many people who indulge in such backbiting. They are fond of gossiping, listening to gossip or reporting all the gossip they have heard. The subject matter of the gossip attracts their attention as special news-report. Only those who love wisdom are free from such idle talk. So, those who love wisdom should avoid slandering. As an ethical value, abstinence from slandering is a noble virtue but some people consider it advisable to resort to calumny under certain circumstances for their own ends. In ancient times, kings employed deceptive tactics to create discord among their united enemies and so they achieved victory. King Ajætasattu defeated the united Licchævis by means of this kind of stratagem. He first banished his minister, the brahmin Vassakæra, under the pretext of punishing him for some offence. Vassakæra went to Vesælø. Some Licchævø princes said that the brahmin was very cunning and objected to his residence in their city. But most of them had no suspicion because they believed that his banishment was due to what he said in their favour. So they welcomed him and entrusted him with the education of their children. In order to gain the confidence of the public, the brahmin at first taught the young princes properly. The princes held him in high esteem and regarded him as their reliable teacher. Then the brahmin sought to create discord and misunderstanding among them. The way he did it was subtle. He would call a prince and ask him in whisper. “Have you had your meal? What curry did you eat?” His question was designed to make other princes suspicious. Again he would ask another prince in whisper, “Does your father plough with two oxen?” Thus there was an air of secrecy about his questions and the manner of asking them. The prince who was questioned by the brahmin became an object of suspicion by others. He said that he did not know what to make of the brahmin’s questions but they thought he was only lying. Then the brahmin asked another prince whether he was afraid as reported by a friend of his named so-and-so. Naturally the prince was offended at what he believed to be calumny on the part of his friend. In this way, Vassakæra set the princes by the ears and in a matter of three years they were so much divided among themselves that they hated to see one another. Then Vassakæra sent a message to king Ajætasattu that it was high time for him to seize Vesælø. Ajætasattu marched on to the city with his troops. The alarm was sounded by the beating of war-drums but since the princes were not united, no one came out for the defence of the city. They sulked at home doing nothing. So there was no resistance and Ajætasattu took the city easily. This is an example of divisive tactics based on calumny and leading to victory, an example that teaches us valuable lessons. Today, politicians and others engaged in worldly affairs employ deceptive tactics for their own ends. Propaganda involves many talks that are intended to discredit one’s opponents. Even in matters of religion some make remarks that harmful to others. Any remark that is calculated to discredit or arouse hatred against a person or persons is calumny. But some people have a high regard for a person who is not worthy of respect and you may have to speak ill of him by way of warning them against an illusion that is detrimental to their interest. This kind of remark is not slanderous and evil. But you should avoid making any remark that will create misunderstanding and discord. Your words should serve to infuse in others respect for the person who is worthy of respect and unite those who are on the verge of conflict. If you hear someone being criticized through misunderstanding, you should counsel restraint. You should appease the critic; saying, “This man would not have spoken such a thing,” or “He might have said it not with ill-will but with the best of his intention.” The Buddha describes abstinence from slander as follows: “The man who is committed to such abstinence avoids tale-bearing. He brings about reconcilation among those who are divided. His words strengthen the unity of those who are already united. He delights in seeing people in harmony. He loves harmony and so he will make only the remarks that tend to encourage harmonious relationship.” Therefore, we should not convey the slanderous remark of a person to another person concerned. We should not tell a person about the faults of another. We should utter only words that are discreet and beneficial. We should make only remarks that are conducive to unity, remarks such as “Your friend often extols you for your honesty, broadmindedness and capabilities.” Where we hear someone speaking ill of another, we should say “What you say may not be true; perhaps you have miss-understood him or he has made a mistake sincerely. He is a very good man. He could not have made such a senseless remark.” We should not support a disparaging remark. Instead, we should say something that will mollify a person’s anger. Such words help to avert conflict that is likely to occur or to restore unity among those who are divided. So we should practise the Sallekha dhamma of abstinence from slander (sallekhaværa); cultivate thoughts relating to it (cittuppædaværa); avoid slander by following the path of abstinence it (parikkamanaværa); abstain from slander for our spiritual uplift (uparibhagaværa); avoid slander for the attainment of Nibbæna. There are people who are by nature free from the habit of slandering and there are those who avoid it because of their firm commitment to moral precepts. This is the extinction of defilement rooted in the transgression by word of mouth, an extinction that is based on inborn or self-imposed morality. This kind of extinction is good and it is commended in Sallekha sutta. But one should not remain content with it. For it is not permanent. Although you are now free from the defilement, you are not assured of the same freedom in your next existence. So it is necessary to root it out on the plane of the Noble Ones (Ariyamagga). Such Ariyan or total extinction is called samuccheda-virati (absolute abstention), one of the three kinds of virati that I have explained in my third sermon. A³guttara nikæya mentions the kammic effects of slandering. It says that the slanderer is liable to land in the nether world and that if he is reborn as a human being, he will be at odds with his relatives and friends. The more he is slanderous, the more kammic evil there is in store for him. Those who utter slander against good and virtuous persons will have to pay dearly for their evil words. The kammic rewards for abstinence from slander are just the opposite. One who abstains from slander will enjoy heavenly bliss and on return to the human world will have happy and harmonious relations with his friends and relatives. The following is a story about a woman who had to suffer after her death because of her slanderous talks. It concerns both men and women and is worthy of note. In the lifetime of the Buddha and far nearly one thousand years after his parinibbæna there were bhikkhunøs, the female members of the Buddhist Sangha. The scene of the story is laid at Pataliputta, a city that arose and became famous in post-parinibbænic period and so the events might have occurred after the Buddha’s parinibbæna. But since the story is to be found in the Pæ¹i pi¥aka, it apparently relates events before the second Council or events that took place within one hundred years after the Buddha’s decease. One day, the two therøs, Isidæsi and Bodhi, sat on the clean, white sand bank of the Ganges near the city of Pataliputta. Both were Arahats with all their biases (æsavas) or unwholesome tendencies totally extinct. They sat in a contemplative mood, breathing fresh air and watching the cool, clear water of the river. Then as she looked at her companion, Bodhi therø was struck by her beauty and youthfulness. By and large, young and pretty women are sunk in sensual pleasures. They seldom visit holy places, let alone entertain any idea of joining the holy order. Bodhi therø wondered what unusual circumstances had led Isidæsi to become a bhikkhunø at her tender age. So she asked Isidæsi, “My friend, the world should be a happy place for a young and attractive woman like you. So what was your disappointment or your disillusionment with life that made you join the holy order?” Then Isidæsi told her story. The only daughter of a merchant of good moral character in Ujjeni, she was much beloved by her parents. Ujjeni is the Ujjeni of Bhopa state in middle west India. It is not far from the famous stþpa at Sanchi. When Isidæsi came of age, a rich merchant of Sæketa in middle north India sought her hand in marriage with her son. Sæketa was far away from Ujjeni; and in those days it took probably two to three months by bullock cart or carriage. The Two families being well matched in respect of social status and wealth, Isidæsi’s parents agreed to the proposal. After marriage, she lived in the house of her mother-in-law in accordance with the Indian custom. As a girl of good upbringing, she revered her husband’s parents as her own, paying customary respect of them twice a day. In India, it is still a customary for young people to do obeisance to parents, parents-in-laws and elders. On our way to Sri Lanka in connection with the sixth Buddhist Council, we stopped at Madras to call on a well-to-do Indian. The Indian was out, so we had to wait for him at his house. When he came back, his wife and all the other inmates of the house paid respect to him. It is their way of greeting. Elderly people, too, greet one another by raising their hands with palms placed together. There is no such custom in Myanmar and it is not usual to make obeisance to parents and elders. Public respect is accorded only to images of Buddha, pagodas and bhikkhus. Animists pay respect to nats (spirits) but they do not show the same gesture towards their fellow beings. All this is due to lack of training. Some even do not know how to pay respect to their parents. Some, however, make it a practice to show respect to the elders in the month of Thadingyut (October)– the end of Buddhist lent. Some children do not hesitate to pay respect to their parents and elders because they had been trained to do so. This is a very good habit of a cultured society and every parents should implant it in their children. Isidæsi was courteous to her husband’s brothers and sisters as well. She gave up her seat when they came and provided them with food. She approached her husband respectfully, with her hands and feet washed and cleaned. She groomed his hair, gave him a looking-glass and applied a brown lotion to his eyes in Indian fashion. She arranged his clothes like a slave girl. She prepared his meals herself instead of leaving the job to her servants. She washed the dishes and pots too. In short, she served her husband tenderly like a mother attending to the needs of her only child. He fulfillment of the wife’s obligation should have been gratifying to every man. Yet, by an irony of fate, one month after the marriage, her husband hated her bitterly and told his parents that he could not live with her any longer. They asked him why he disliked his wife who was in their eyes a good, hard working and conscientious woman. The young man said that his wife gave him no trouble but that in spite of her good character he did not love her any longer. If his parents insisted on his marital fidelity, he would have to leave the house. So the merchant and his wife asked Isidæsi what mistake she had made in her relation with her husband. Isidæsi replied in sorrow that she had said or done nothing that might offend or make him unhappy and that she had served him with respect and deep affection. If in spite of her faithfulness he hated her, she could not help it. They were convinced of Isidæsi’s innocence but their sense of justice was outweighed by their love and attachment to their son. So they sent her back to her parents although they were unhappy for the loss of their charming daughter-in-law. As will be shown later, the young man’s hatred for his innocent wife was due to her evil kamma in the past. But the fault did not lie entirely with her. The man’s dislike of Isidæsi might also be attributed to his lack of kamma that was good enough to make him worthy of a noble woman like her. We will explain it later. Isidæsi’s father was confident of her ability to get another good husband and he married her to the son of a well-to-do second-rate merchant. Isidæsi served him respectfully. But again after a month, her husband said that he could not live with her. She was later sent back to her parents. Then her father thought that it was their wealth that had made her husbands and their parents so arrogant and cruel to her. So he looked for a poor man who would suit his daughter. Before long, there came a good-looking beggar. The merchant gave him new clothes and persuaded him to live comfortably in his house as his son-in-law. But after a fortnight the beggar changed his mind and said that he wished to leave the house. The parents and relatives of Isidæsi entreated him not to leave them but it was in vain. He said that he could not live any longer with Isidæsi in the same house. Then he deserted his wife. The working out of kamma is at times very surprising. The beggar’s reluctance to live comfortably in the merchant’s house as his son-in-law might probably be due to the inadequacy of his kammic potential for such a better life. The beggar was like the man in Mahosadhæ jætaka who deserted his wife.
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